Comprising metallurgic chemistry, the arts of working all metals and alloys, forging of iron and steel, hardening and tempering, melting and mixing, casting and founding, works in sheet metal, the processes dependent on the ductility of the metals, soldering, and the most improved processes, and tools employed by metal-workers. with the application of the art of electro-metallurgy to manufacturing processes: collected prom original sources, and from the works of holtzapffel, bergeron, leupold, plumier, napier, scoffern, clay, fairbairn, and others.
A New, Revised, And Improved Edition.
To Which 18 Added An Appendix, Containing The Manufacture Of Russian Sheet Iron. By John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.
The Manufacture Of Malleable Iron Castings, And Improvements In Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist And Engineer.
With Six Hundred And Nine Engravings, Illustrating Every Branch Of The Subject.
Preface- The Practical Metal-Worker's Assistant, as now presented to the public, possesses some very valuable and essential features not found in former editions, and which, it is believed, will render it even...
- Chapter I. On Metallurgic Chemistry. The Useful Metals And Metallic Ores Defined
- Of sixty-four simple or elementary material bodies, no less than fifty or fifty-one are metallic. We shall not enter upon the characteristics which serve to define a metal - that more especially belon...
- History Or Metallurgy
- In illustration of the mutual dependences of a branch of practical metallurgy and chemical science, it may be here not unadvisable to anticipate the contents of the monographs which especially deal wi...
- Refining Processes
- Every person who takes a passing glance at the operations of metallurgy in the aggregate, cannot fail to be struck with a certain functional similarity between the process of cupellation as applied to...
- Advantages Of Cast-Iron
- We have already intimated that the presence of impurities in iron as rendered by our smelting works, and the difficulties of removing them, are not barren of all good results; and we have adverted to ...
- Crystallizing Tendency Of Wrought-Iron In Large Masses
- It was found by Mr. Nasmyth, in turning out his monster gun, that the iron had ceased to be fibrous, and had assumed a crystalline texture at its centre, thus losing the strength and tenacity which th...
- Classification Of Metals
- Before indicating the chemical principles upon which each special process of metallurgy is based, it will be desirable to arrange the metals in classes, according to the several characteristics which ...
- Alloys
- Having taken a cursory survey of the classes and subdivisions of which metals, practically considered, are susceptible, we shall now proceed to describe the principal compound forms of which metals ar...
- Metallic Oxides
- We have already said that these are the most numerous and the most important of metallic ores. The smelting of them depends on an application of the best practical means of removing oxygen. The relati...
- Sulphides
- All metals combine more or less with sulphur, and form sulphides when sulphur is brought into contact with the metal, in the absence of oxygen or chlorine. When oxides are treated with sulphur in suff...
- Calcination, And Roasting
- These processes are more frequently made use of than any other operation had recourse to by the practical metallurgist for effecting the elimination of sulphur and other volatile substances from the o...
- Chapter II. Special Metallurgic Operations
- We now come to the principles on which metallurgic processes are based, and the practical application of these principles. Mechanical and chemical sciences are here involved, - the former to effect a ...
- Fluxes
- Assuming the process of roasting to have been necessary and to have been applied, and that a metallic substance still remains to be extracted from the non-volatile residue, a process of fusion must be...
- Furnaces
- The various forms of furnaces admit of division into two well-marked primary classes. One class in which the material to be acted upon is brought in direct contact with fuel; the other class in which ...
- Furnaces. Part 2
- The real amount of heat capable of being developed by the given weight of a combustible by refined chemical means, is so involved with other conditions in practice as to be of itself little worth. The...
- Furnaces. Part 3
- Some few years since considerable interest was excited by a patent taken out by Mr. Reece for the conversion of peat into valuable products by a modified process of destructive distillation. One of th...
- Natural And Artificial Blasts
- Next in relation to furnace-heat, we have to consider the various means had recourse to for producing atmospheric currents. These admit of division into natural and mechanical, - the former comprehend...
- Blast-Machines
- The most primitive method of generating an air-blast is by some modification of the leather bellows. Originally bellows were nothing more than the skin of an animal closely sewn except at one part, to...
- Chain Blast
- This is a somewhat elaborate application of hydraulic laws to the purpose of creating an air-blast. It is depicted in the accompanying dia gram (Fig. 10), and its construction is as follows: An endles...
- Chapter III. Recently Patented Refining Processes
- We now come to deal with a class of metallurgic processes which have recently much occupied the public attention - an attention which their importance fully justifies. 'We allude, of course, to the pr...
- Recently Patented Refining Processes. Part 2
- Mr. Clay's Process. - Among other ingenious inventions, we may here mention that of Mr. Clay of the Mersey Iron Works, - an invention for which a patent was taken out and a specification lodged, as ap...
- Recently Patented Refining Processes. Part 3
- The apparatus by which it is now proposed to carry out this process, differs somewhat from that described above: it is a cylindrical vessel, mounted on axes not placed at the centre of gravity. Of thi...
- Recently Patented Refining Processes. Part 4
- Fig. 14. Fit?. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Having thus minutely described this apparatus, let us follow its author through the process. When the chamber is about half-filled with fluid metal dra...
- Recently Patented Refining Processes. Part 5
- The heat, in some cases, is so excessive that the metal, even when reduced to malleable iron, is still so far above the melting point that its temperature requires to be reduced before casting. For th...
- Recently Patented Refining Processes. Part 6
- We have already seen that the principal impurities in cast-iron Fig. 19, consist of carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, and some other substances of less importance. These substances, Mr. Besseme...
- Recently Patented Refining Processes. Part 7
- In reference to this railway bar, Mr. Bessemer states, that it was rolled direct from a ten-inch square ingot, having passed through the rolls fourteen times. The metal was not previously piled or in ...
- Chapter IV. Refining And Working Of Iron
- The iron furnaces of the United States are, generally speaking, superior to those of England or the rest of Europe. On this point and for the smelting of iron we refer our readers to Overman on the M...
- Manufacture Of Malleable Iron
- Formerly, wrought-iron was obtained either directly from the ore, or from cast-iron, by a process still in extensive operation, in which wood charcoal is required. Puddling The crude cast-iron is re...
- Manufacture Of Malleable Iron. Continued
- Fig. 26. Instead of forcing the hammer towards the bloom by a spring and drawing it back by a cam, this arrangement may be reversed by making the spring simply of sufficient length to draw back the...
- Chapter V. Manufacture Of Steel
- Steel is manufactured from pure maneab e iron by the process called cementation. The Swedish iron from the Dannemora mines, marked with the letter L in the centre of a circle, and called Hoop L, is ...
- Chapter VI. Forging Iron And Steel
- In entering upon this subject, which performs so important and indispensable a part in every branch of mechanical industry, it is proposed first to notice some of the general methods pursued, commenci...
- Forging Iron And Steel. Part 2
- The blast is sometimes supplied from ordinary bellows of various forms; at other times, by three enormous air-pumps, which lead into fourth cylinder or regulator, the piston of which is loaded with we...
- Forging Iron And Steel. Part 3
- Figs. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 40. Fig. 33. Fig. 37 represents tongs much used at Sheffield, amongst the cutlers; they are called crook-bit tongs; their jaws overhang the side so as ...
- Forging Iron And Steel. Part 4
- Fig. 42. This forge is also occasionally fitted with a furnace for melting small quantities of metal, and with various apparatus for other applications of heat, such as soldering, either with a sma...
- Forging Iron And Steel. Part 5
- Without attempting any refine 1 division, I may add, the smith commonly speaks of five degrees of temperature, namely: The black-red heat, just visible by daylight; The low-red heat; The bright-red...
- Ordinary Practice Of Forging
- The general practices of forging works from the bar of iron or steel are, for the most part, included in the three following modes: the first two occur in almost every case, and frequently all three t...
- Ordinary Practice Of Forging. Part 2
- To return to the forging: the flat face of the hammer should not only fall flat, but also centrally upon the work; that is, the centre of the hammer, in which point the principal force of the blow is ...
- Ordinary Practice Of Forging. Part 3
- Secondly, by jumping: - A piece of bolt-iron of five-eighths of an inch in diameter, or of the size of the stem of the bolt, is cut off somewhat longer than the intended length: a short heat is take...
- Ordinary Practice Of Forging. Part 4
- It is usual in punching holes through thick pieces, to throw a little coal-dust into the hole when it is partly made, to prevent the punch sticking in so fast as it otherwise would: the punch generall...
- Chapter VII. On Wrought-Iron In Large Masses
- The manufacture of wrought-iron in large masses cannot boast of a very early origin. Although we read in the most ancient of Books that Tubal Cain, before. the Flood, was an instructor of every artifi...
- Description Of Forge-Tools
- A forge has necessarily three principal divisions, viz., the furnace, the crane, and the hammer; and they compose the chief fixtures. The furnace (Fig. 68) is, in this country, of the ordinary reverbe...
- Crane
- The crane is a very useful auxiliary in the working of the forge. Without its aid it would be impossible to fabricate those large masses of iron, the almost daily manufacture of which has ceased to ex...
- Hammers
- We now come to what is, perhaps, the most important, or, at any rate, what is considered the most important tool in the forge, viz., the hammer; and we purpose giving a slight description of the vario...
- Materials
- We now propose to give a short description of the materials consumed in the forge, the chief of which are the coals and the iron. It is of considerable importance that care should be used in the selec...
- Materials. Continued
- It is to be regretted that these circulars were not made more general, and that more of them were not addressed to practical forge-masters; for we observe, among the replies elicited, the name of one ...
- Manufacture
- But scrap-iron, though, as we have endeavored to show, the worst for our purpose, is the material from which forgings are generally made; and we must say a word or two as to its preparation. It is nec...
- Manufacture. Continued
- Fig. 77. Front view. Fig. 77. End view. Fig. 78. End view. Fig. 78. Front view The third method of manufacturing large shafts is commenced by making a round core or heart, B, and taking ba...
- Crystallization
- A great deal has been said and written with reference to a supposed deterioration, or, as it has been called, crystallization of iron, when rolled in large masses, from long-continued and frequent h...
- Crystallization. Part 2
- Having thus endeavored to explain the meaning of the term crystallization, let us now endeavor to trace the causes which produce this result. The change in the structure of the mass of iron, when i...
- Crystallization. Part 3
- Whilst Mr. Mallet's work was passing through the press, and without any communication from him, the maker of the forgings he mentions, after three failures, overcame the difficulty in the manner propo...
- Chapter VIII. General Examples Of Welding
- The former illustrations of forging have been to some extent descriptive of such works as could be made from a single bar of iron, on purpose that the examples to be advanced in welding or joining tog...
- General Examples Of Welding. Part 2
- In works that have accidentally broken in the welded part, the fracture will be frequently 'seen to have arisen from some dirty matter having been allowed to remain between them, on which account, shu...
- General Examples Of Welding. Part 3
- Various steps of improvement have been since made. For instance, the skelps were bent at two squeezes, first to the semi-cylindrical and then to the tubular form (preparatory to welding), between a sw...
- General Examples Of Welding. Part 4
- Figs. 90 In making the hatchet, a piece of flat iron is selected of the width of A E, and twice the length of A D; it is thinned and extended sideways before it is folded together, to form ...
- Concluding Remarks On Forging; And The Applications Of Heading Tools, Swage Tools, Punches, Etc
- With the utmost care and unlimited space, it would have been quite impossible to have conveyed the instructions called for, in forging the thousand varieties of tools, and parts of mechanism the smith...
- Chapter IX. Hardening And Tempering. General View Of The Subject
- When the malleable metals are hammered or rolled, they generally increase in hardness, in elasticity, and in density or specific gravity; which effects are produced simply from the closer approximatio...
- Practice Of Hardening And Tempering Steel
- It may perhaps be truly said, that upon no one subject connected with mechanical art does there exist such a contrariety of opinion, not unmixed with prejudice, as upon that of hardening and tempering...
- Practice Of Hardening And Tempering Steel. Part 2
- Less than a certain heat fails to produce hardness, and in the opinion of some workmen has quite the opposite effect, and they consequently resort to it as the means of rapid annealing; not, however, ...
- Practice Of Hardening And Tempering Steel. Part 3
- Occasionally objects are clamped between stubborn pieces of metal, as soft iron or copper, during their passage through the fire and water. Such plans can be seldom adopted, and are rarely followed, t...
- Common Examples Of Hardening And Tempering Steel
- Watchmakers' drills of the smallest kinds are heated in the blue part of the flame of the candle; larger drills are heated with the blowpipe flame, applied very obliquely, and a little below the point...
- Common Examples Of Hardening And Tempering Steel. Continued
- The following recipe is recommended: Twenty gallons of spermaceti oil; Twenty pounds of beef suet rendered; One gallon of neat's-foot oil; One pound of pitch; Three pounds of black resin. These ...
- Less Common Examples Of Hardening, And Precautionary Measures
- English writers are famous all over the world for distributing between themselves and their friends the inventions and discoveries of the rest of mankind. One of the leading points of Jacob Perkins's ...
- Less Common Examples Of Hardening, And Precautionary Measures. Continued
- The surfaces of the cylinders and plates are thus rendered exceedingly soft, to the depth of about the 32d of an inch, so as to become more like lead than any thing else, and thus much of their surf...
- Chapter X. Hardening Cast And Wrought-Iron
- The similitude of chemical constitution between steel, which usually contains about one per cent. of carbon, and cast-iron that has from three to six or seven per cent., naturally leads to the expecta...
- Case-Hardening Wrought And Cast-Iron
- The property of hardening is not possessed by pure malleable iron; but I have now to explain a rapid and partial process of cementation, by which wrought-iron is first converted exteriorly into steel,...
- Chapter XI. On The Application Of Iron To Ship-Building
- There is probably no branch of industry in which the use of iron is more important than that of ship-building. The strength, ductility, and comparative lightness of this material are all in its favor;...
- Ribs
- One of the ribs is shown at a a a, Fig. 108; and its section will be seen in Fig. 109, which is a longitudinal section through the line b b; it consists of a vertical plate c, to which two angle-irons...
- Keels
- This part of the vessel requires to be made exceedingly strong to resist the pressure or violent shocks to which it is subjected, when a vessel grounds. It is made in various ways, generally with a fa...
- Decks
- The floorings are supported upon beams extending from one side of the vessel to the other, and attached at either end to the ribs or side frames. In the section, Fig. 108, the two upper decks are supp...
- Riveting Of The Plates
- In all wrought-iron constructions, the mode of joining two plates together is the same. When the article can neither be produced at once from the rolling-mill nor the steam-hammer, and except in the c...
- Wood And Iron As Materials For Ship-Building
- We shall consider this point under three heads - Strength, Durability, Economy. To ascertain the superiority of iron over wood in regard to strength, let us consider the strains to which a vessel is...
- Durability
- The durability of iron ships is now established beyond a doubt; and it is generally admitted that they remain fit for service longer than those of timber. At first it was thought that the action of sa...
- Economy
- Mr. Grantham, in the work already quoted, comes to the conclusion that iron vessels are on the whole less expensive in construction than similar vessels of wood. But assuming that, when built in the b...
- Chapter XII. The Metals And Alloys Most Commonly Used
- We have now to consider the following metals: Antimony, Bismuth, Copper, Gold, Lead, Mercury, Nickel, Palladium, Platinum, Rhodium, Silver, Tin, and Zinc. Unlike iron and steel, they do not admit of b...
- Description Of The Physical Character And Uses Of The Metals And Alloys Commonly Employed In The Mechanical And Useful Arts. Antimony
- ANTIMONY is of a silvery white color, brittle and crystalline in its ordinary texture. It fuses at about 800, or at a dull red heat, and is volatile at a white heat. Its specific gravity is 6.712...
- Bismuth
- BISMUTH is a brittle white metal with a slight tint of red: its specific gravity is 9.822. It fuses at 476 to 507, and always crystallizes on cooling. According to Chaudet, pure bismuth is s...
- Alloys of Copper and Zinc only
- The marginal numbers denote the ounces of zinc added to every pound of copper. 1/8 to 1/2 oz. Castings are seldom made of pure copper, as under ordinary circumstances it does not cast soundly; about ...
- Alloys of Copper and Tin only
- The marginal numbers denote the ounces of tin added to every pound of copper. Ancient Copper and Tin Alloys. 3/4 oz. Ancient bronze nails, flexible, or 20 copper, 1 tin. ...
- Alloys of Copper and Lead only
- The marginal numbers denote the ounces of lead added to every pound of copper. 2 oz A red-colored and ductile alloy. 4 oz. .Less red and ductile; neither of these is so much used as the following, a...
- Alloys of Copper, Zinc, Tin, and Lead, etc
- This group refers principally to gun-metal alloys, to which more or less zinc is added by many engineers. The quantity of tin in every pound of the alloy, which is expressed by the marginal numbers, p...
- Remarks on Alloys of Copper, Zinc, Tin, and Lead, etc.
- Ordinary Yellow Brass (copper and zinc) is rendered very sensibly harder, so as not to require to be hammered, by a small addition of tin, say 1/4 or 1/2 oz. to the lb. On the other hand by the additi...
- Gold Alloys
- Gold-leaf for gilding contains from 3 to 12 grains of alloy to the oz., but generally 6 grains. The gold used by respectable dentists, for plates, is nearly pure, but necessarily contains about 6 grai...
- Lead
- LEAD appears to have been known in the earliest ages of the world. Its color is bluish white; it has much brilliancy, is remarkably flexible and soft, and leaves a black streak on paper: when handled ...
- Mercury
- MERCURY is a brilliant white metal, having much of the color of silver, whence the terms hydrargyrum, argentum vivum, and quicksilver. It has been known from very remote ages. It is liquid at all comm...
- Nickel
- NICKEL is a white brilliant metal, which acts upon the magnetic needle, and is itself capable of becoming a magnet. Its magnetism is more feeble than that of iron, and vanishes at a heat somewhat belo...
- Palladium
- PALLADIUM is of a dull-white color, malleable and ductile, specific gravity is about 11.3, or 11.86 when laminated. Palladium is a soft metal, but its alloys are all harder than the pure metal. With ...
- Platinum
- PLATINUM is a white metal, extremely difficult of fusion, and unaltered by the joint action of heat and air. It varies in density from 21 to 21.5, according to the degree of mechanical compression whi...
- Rhodium
- RHODIUM is a white metal very difficult of fusion. Its specific gravity is about 11; it is extremely hard; when pure the acids do not dissolve it. Rhodium has been long employed for the nibs of pens,...
- SILVER
- SILVER is of a more pure white than any other metal. It has considerable brilliancy, and takes a high polish. Its specific gravity varies between 10.4, which is the density of cast silver, and 10.5 to...
- Silver Alloys
- The alloy with copper constitutes plate and coin. By the addition of a small proportion of copper to silver, the metal is rendered harder and more sonorous, while its color is scarcely impaired. Even ...
- Tin
- TIN has a silvery-white color with a slight tint of yellow; it is malleable, though sparingly ductile. Common tin-foil, which is obtained by beating out the metal, is not more than one-thousandth of a...
- Zinc
- ZINC is a bluish-white metal, with considerable lustre, rather hard, of a specific gravity of about 6.8 in its usual state, but, when drawn into wire, or rolled into plates, its density is augmented t...
- Babbitt's Anti-Attrition Metal - Directions For Preparing And Fittino
- Melt 4 lbs. of copper, add. by degrees, 12 lbs. best quality Banca tin, 8 lbs. regulus of antimony, and 12 lbs. more of tin while the composition is in a melted state. After the copper is melted and ...
- Tables Of The Cohesive Force Of Solid Bodies
- Table I. - Metals (h) and (J) mark the highest and lowest result which Muschenbroek obtained from each kind of iron. METALS. Specific cohesion. Glass I. Coh. force of a square inch i...
- Tabular View Of Some Of The Properties Of Metals
- Specific gravity. Chemical equivalents. Platinum................... 20.98 98.8 Gold........................ 19.258 199.2 Iridium.............
- Linear Dilatations By Heat
- Dimensions which a bar takes at 212, whose length at 32 is 1.000000; also its dilatation in vulgar fractions. Platinum............ 1.00091085 or one 1097th part. Pa...
- Weights Of Wrought-Iron, Steel, Copper, And Brass Wire And Plates
- The specific gravities to determine the weights of the following-named metals, and the calculations of them, were taken and made by Charles H. Haswell, of New York, for the well-known manufacturers, M...
- Chapter XIII. Remarks On The Characters Of The Metals And Alloys. Hardness, Fracture, And Color Of Alloys
- The object of the present chapter is to explain in a general way some of the peculiarities and differences amongst alloys, prior to entering on the means of melting the metals, without which process a...
- Malleability And Ductility Of Alloys
- The malleability and ductility of alloys are in a great measure referable to the degrees in which the metals of which they are respectively composed, possess these characters. Lead and tin are mallea...
- Strength Or Cohesion Of Alloys
- The strength or cohesion of the alloys is in general greatly superior to that of any of the metals of which they are composed. For example, on comparing some of the numbers of the table on pages 206 a...
- Table For Converting Decimal Proportions
- Into Divisions of the Pound Avoirdupois. Decimal. oz. dr. .78 1 1.56 2 2.34 3 3.12 4 3.91 5 ...
- Fusibility Of Alloys
- In concluding this slight view of some of the general characters of alloys, it remains to consider the influence of heat, both as an agent in their formation and as regards the degree in which it is r...
- The Palladiumizing Process
- The articles to be protected are to be first cleansed in the same way as in the case of zincing; namely, by means of the double salts of zinc and ammonia, or of manganese and ammonia; and then to be t...
- Chapter XIV. Melting And Mixing The Metals
- The various Furnaces, etc., for Melting the Metals. - The subject upon which we have now to enter consists of two principal divisions, namely, the melting and combining of the metals, and the formatio...
- Melting And Mixing The Metals. Part 2
- Country blacksmiths, who are frequently called upon to practice many trades, sometimes melt from ten to fifteen pounds of brass in the ordinary forge fire, but there is considerable risk of cracking t...
- Melting And Mixing The Metals. Part 3
- The composition of Britannia metal is as follows: 3 1/2 cwt. of best block tin; 28 lbs. of martial regulus of antimony; 8 lbs. of copper, and 8 lbs. of brass. The amalgamation of these metals is effec...
- Melting And Mixing The Metals. Part 4
- I was the more diverted from the above attempts by the well-known fact that the greatest loss always occurs in the first mixing of the two metals, and which the founder is in general anxious to avoid....
- Chapter XV. Casting And Founding. Metallic Moulds
- We are indebted to the fusibility of the metals, for the power of giving them with great facility and perfection, any required form, by pouring them whilst in the fluid state into moulds of various ki...
- Casting And Founding. Metallic Moulds. Continued
- Metal moulds are employed for many works in the easily-fused metals, which are required to be produced in large quantities, and with great similitude and economy: the examination of which moulds will ...
- Plaster Of Paris Moulds And Sand Moulds
- Other examples of metallic moulds might be given, but there are far more frequent cases in which one single casting is alone required; or else the number is so small, or the pieces themselves are so l...
- Patterns, Moulds, And Moulding Simple Objects
- The perfection of castings depends much on the skill of the patternmaker, who should thoroughly understand the practice of the moulder, or he is liable to make the patterns in such a manner that they ...
- Patterns, Moulds, And Moulding Simple Objects. Part 2
- Red brick-dust is generally used to make the partings of the mould, or to prevent the damp sand in the separate parts of the flask from adhering together. The face of the mould which receives the met...
- Patterns, Moulds, And Moulding Simple Objects. Part 3
- The models are next arranged upon the face of the sand at 4, so as to leave space enough to prevent the parts breaking one into the other, and also for the passages by which the metal is to be introdu...
- Moulding Cored Works
- If the objects to be cast require to be so moulded that when they leave the sand they may contain one or several holes, they are said to be cored, and in such cases, a variety of methods are practised...
- Reversing And Figure Casting
- Supposing that an ornament, represented in section in Fig. 154 has been modeled in relief, either in clay or wax upon a flat board, from which a thin casting in brass is wanted without the tablet, the...
- Filling The Moulds
- Having traced the formation of various kinds of moulds for brass work, we must now return to the furnace to see if the metal is in condition to be poured, which is indicated by the slight wasting of t...
- Iron-Founders' Flasks, And Sand Moulds
- The process of moulding works in sand is essentially the same both for brass and iron castings; but the very great magnitude of many of the latter gives rise to several differences in the methods: it ...
- Iron-Founders' Flasks, And Sand Moulds. Part 2
- It would be a useless repetition to enter into the details of moulding ordinary iron works; but from the horizontal position of the flasks it is necessary that the part of the work which is required t...
- Iron-Founders' Flasks, And Sand Moulds. Part 3
- A casting, such as Fig. 166, which represents the top of a sliding-rest for a lathe, might be moulded in a very deep two-part flask, if the parting were made upon the dotted line a, a; but there would...
- Remarks On Patterns For Iron Castings
- The construction of patterns for iron castings requires not only the observance of all the particulars conveyed on pages 238 to 240, but, in addition, the large size of the models, the peculiar method...
- Loam Moulding
- Figs. 170, 171, and 172, are intended to illustrate this process as regards a steam cylinder. Fig. 170 is the entire section of the mould in its first stage. Figs. 171 and 172 are the half sections of...
- Loam Moulding. Continued
- Large pans, and various other circular works, are moulded precisely in the same way as cylinders; except that curved templets are used, and that towards the conclusion, the apertures through which the...
- Melting And Pouring Iron
- Iron is usually melted in a blast furnace, or as it is more commonly called, a cupola; although the cupola or dome leading to the chimney, from which it would appear to have derived its name, is frequ...
- Melting And Pouring Iron. Part 2
- When enough iron is melted (the common charge being two and a half to four cwt., but sometimes above twelve tons), the cupola is tapped in front, at a hole close to the bottom, which allows the whole ...
- Melting And Pouring Iron. Part 3
- A far greater number of works are cast in cloze moulds, and in the horizontal position; the proportionate quantity of metal is carried to them in ladles; skimmers are held to the lips of the moulds at...
- New Method Of Manufacturing Drop Shot
- David Smith, of the house of Le Roy and Co., 263 Water Street, New York, has invented and put into practice a new mode of manufacturing drop shot. The chief feature of this invention consists in causi...
- Chapter XVI. Works In Sheet Metal, Made By Joining
- On Malleability, etc.; Division of the Subject. - The process of casting, which has been recently considered under so great a variety of forms, is one of the most valuable courses of preparation to wh...
- Works In Sheet Metal, Made By Cutting, Bending, And Joining
- Every one in early life has made the first step towards the acquirement of the various arts of working in sheet metal, in the simple process of making a box or tray of card; namely, by doubling up the...
- Works In Sheet Metal, Made By Cutting, Bending, And Joining. Part 2
- In all other regular polygonal vessels the new ordinates will be reduced for figures of 8, 10, and 12 sides, in the same proportions as the sides of these respective polygons bear to the radii of thei...
- Works In Sheet Metal, Made By Cutting, Bending, And Joining. Part 3
- The anvil used by the coppersmith and similar workmen is usually square, say from six to eight inches on every side; and the smaller anvils, which are called stakes, and also teests, are of progressiv...
- Improved Machine For Rolling Up Sheet Metal Pipe
- This Machine is the invention of Mr. William Ostrander, of New York, and is patented by Ostrander and Webster. It consists of three rollers, LMB (the same as ordinary stovepipe rollers); J is an indep...
- Angle And Surface Joints
- The next steps to be considered, appear to be the methods of uniting the edges of the vessels after they have been cut and bent to meet in angles, curves, or plane surfaces. The principal modes of acc...
- Angle And Surface Joints. Part 2
- Fig. 236 is a hollow crease used for vessels and chambers for making sulphuric acid; the metal is scraped perfectly clean, filled with lead heated nearly to redness, and the whole are united by burnin...
- Angle And Surface Joints. Part 3
- The machinery referred to will be easily understood by the above engraving. On the left are the pumps, worked, as represented in the engraving, by two men, though four or more are often required. By a...
- Chapter XVII. Works In Sheet Metal, Made By Raising; And The Flattening Of Thin Plates Of Metal. Circular Works Spun In The Lathe
- The former examples have only called into action so small an amount of the malleable or gliding property of the metals, that all the forms referred to could be produced in pasteboard, a material nearl...
- Works Raised By The Hammer
- In raising the metals by the hammer, we have to produce similar effects to those in the spinning process; not however by the gradual and continued pressure of a burnisher, on one circle at a time, but...
- Works Raised By The Hammer. Part 2
- The hollow blows given within the same limited circle would also stretch the metal and drive it into the hollow tools employed, such as Fig. 249; thus producing the same effect as in 251, but by stret...
- Works Raised By The Hammer. Part 3
- Figs. 260 261. If, however, the puckers of a large globe were entirely removed by hollow blows, the central lines of the flutes would become thickened, and therefore solid blows are mingled with...
- Works Raised By The Hammer. Part 4
- Having conveyed the full particulars for raising a hemispherical shape, the modifications of treatment required for various other forms will be sufficiently apparent. Thus, below the dotted lines a d,...
- Peculiarities In The Tools And Methods
- Before concluding the remarks on raised works, it may be desirable to revert to some of the principal and distinguishing features of the tools employed in these arts. As a general rule, it will be obs...
- The Principles And Practice Of Flattening Thin Plates Of Metals With The Hammer
- I have purposely reserved this subject to be distinct, on account of its great general importance in the arts, and have placed it last, in order that the various applications of the hammer might have ...
- Principles And Practice Of Flattening Thin Plates Of Metals With The Hammer. Part 2
- In flattening plates, the greater part of the work is done with solid blows upon a true and nearly flat anvil; the face of the hammer is slightly round, and its weight and the force of the blows are d...
- The Principles And Practice Of Flattening Thin Metal Plates With The Hammer. Part 3
- In hammering all plates, preference should in the like manner be given to keeping the edge rather small or stiff, to serve as a margin or frame to the more loose parts within. It gives a degree of sta...
- Chpter XVIII. Processes Dependent On Ductility. Drawing Wires, Etc
- The ductility of many of the metals and alloys, or the quality which allows them to be drawn into wires, is applied to a variety of curious uses in the manufacturing arts, and the process may be viewe...
- Chpter XVIII. Processes Dependent On Ductility. Drawing Wires, Etc. Continued
- It is necessary to be very particular in pulling the wire througn, not to allow it to lean sensibly against either of the last two pins, or it will assume a curve; and in this manner, by drawing the w...
- Drawing Metal Tubes
- The perfection of tubes is mainly dependent on the drawing process, conducted in a manner similar to that employed for drawing wire. Many of the brass tubes for common purposes, when they have been be...
- Chapter XIX. Soldering. General Remarks And Tabular Yiew
- Soldering is the process of uniting the edges or surfaces of similar or dissimilar metals and alloys by partial fusion. In general, alloys or solders of various and greater degrees of fusibility than ...
- Tabular View Of The Processes Of Soldering
- Note To avoid continual repetition, references are made to the pages of this volume which illustrate the respective subjects, and also to the lists on the opposite page, in which some of the solders,...
- The Modes Of Applying Heat In Soldering
- The modes of heating works for soldering are extremely varied, and depend jointly upon the magnitude of the objects, the general or local manner in which they are to be soldered, and the fusibility of...
- The Modes Of Applying Heat In Soldering. Continued
- The most intense heat of the common blowpipe is that of the pointed flame; with a thick wax candle, and a blowpipe with a small aperture placed slightly within the flame, the mineralogist succeeds in ...
- Examples Of Hard Soldering
- It was mentioned in the tabular view that the several works united with hard-solders receive nearly the same treatment; a few examples will therefore serve to convey a general idea of hard-soldering; ...
- Examples Of Soft-Soldering
- The plumbers' sealed-solder, 2 parts lead and 1 of tin, melts at about 440 F.; the usual or fine tin-solder, 2 parts tin and 1 of lead, melts at 340; and the bismuth-solders at from 250...
- Examples Of Soft-Soldering. Part 2
- Copper works are more commonly fluxed with powdered sal ammoniac, and so is likewise sheet-iron, although some mix powdered resin and sal-ammoniac, others moisten the edges of the work with a saturate...
- Examples Of Soft-Soldering. Part 3
- The pewterers employ a very peculiar modification of the blowpipe, which may be called the hot-air blast, and the names for which apparatus are no less peculiar; a, Fig. 299, being called the hod, and...
- Soldering Per Se, Or Burning Together
- This principally differs from ordinary soldering, in the circumstances that the uniting or intermediate metal is the same as those to be joined, and that in general no fluxes are employed. The method...
- Soldering Per Se, Or Burning Together. Continued
- The method of burning is occasionally employed in most of the metals and alloys in making small additions to old castings, and also in repairing trifling holes and defects in new ones; it is only succ...
- Chapter XX. Shears. Cutting Nippers For Wires
- Shears are instruments of a character quite different from any of those hitherto described, as the cutting edges of shearing tools are always used in pairs, and on opposite sides of the material to be...
- Scissors And Shears For Soft Flexible Materials
- The nippers have edges of about 30 to 40 degrees, meeting in direct opposition, but yet leave ragged edges on the work; whereas the shears have edges commonly of 90 degrees, seldom less than 60 degree...
- Scissors And Shears For Soft Flexible Materials. Continued
- The peculiar form of the insides of the blades is in all cases of paramount importance, and in the manufacture of fine scissors is attended by a person called a putter-together,11 whose province it i...
- Shears For Metal Worked By Manual Power
- When metals are very thin, such as the latten brass used for plating, and other purposes, they may be readily cut with stout scissors; and accordingly, we find the weakest of the shears for metal are ...
- Engineers' Shearing Tools; Generally Worked By Steam Power
- The earliest machines of this class were scarcely more than a magnified copy of the bench shears shown on page 361, but made very much stronger; thus, Fig. 322 represents a shearing and squeezing tool...
- Engineers' Shearing Tools; Generally Worked By Steam Power. Continued
- The above machine, which measures in total height about five feet, makes 12 or 15 strokes per minute, shears 1/2 inch iron plates, and punches 3/4 holes in iron 1/2 inch thick. A larger machine makes ...
- Chapter XXI. Punches. Punches Used Without Guides
- This title may, at the first glance, only appear to possess a very scanty relation to the tools used in mechanical manipulation, as the ostensible purpose of a punch may be considered to be only that ...
- Punches Used With Simple Guides
- Beginning this part of the subject with the tools having the most acute edges, we have to refer to the punch pliers, Fig. 346, fitted with round hollow punches for making holes in leather straps and t...
- Punches Used In Fly-Presses, And Miscellaneous Examples Of Their Products
- The punches used in fly-presses, do not differ materially from those already described, but it appears needful to commence this section with some explanation of the principal modifications of the pres...
- Punches Used In Fly-Presses. Part 2
- In the manufacture of steel pens, it is important to have an exact control over the punches which cut the slits, and those which mark the inscriptions, as by descending too far they might disfigure th...
- Punches Used In Fly-Presses. Part 3
- Sometimes the succession of the links for the chain, is one and two links alternately, as at b, Fig. 355; at other times 3 and 2, or 4 and 3 links, as at c, and so forth up to about 9 and 8 links alte...
- Punches Used In Fly-Presses. Part 4
- Steel pens are another most prolific example of the result of the fly-press; they pass through the hands many times, and require to be submitted to the action of numerous dies, to five of which alone ...
- Punches Used In Fly-Presses. Part 5
- As it would be difficult to fit the punches in one single piece to the ornamental or straggling parts of some devices, and as moreover such large and complicated punches would be almost sure to become...
- Punching Machinery Used By Engineers
- After the remarks offered on pages 364 to 367, on shearing tools, little remains to be said in this place on the punching machinery used by engineers, as it was there stated that the cutters for shear...
- Chapter XXII. Drills. Drills For Metal, Used By Hand
- The frequent necessity, in metal works, for the operation of drilling holes, which are required of all sizes and various degrees of accuracy, has led to so very great a variety of modes of performing ...
- Drills. Drills For Metal, Used By Hand. Continued
- Fig. 381, the cone countersink, may be viewed as a multiplication of the common single cutting drill. Sometimes, however, the tool is filed with four equi-distant radial furrows, directly upon the axi...
- Methods Of Working Drills By Hand-Power
- The smallest holes are those required in watch-work, and the general form of the drill is shown on a large scale in Fig. 388; it is made of a piece of steel wire, which is tapered off at the one end, ...
- Methods Of Working Drills By Hand-Power. Part 2
- The figure 390, just referred to, represents one variety of another common form of the drill-stock, in which the revolving spindle is fitted in a handle, so that it may be held in any position without...
- Methods Of Working Drills By Hand-Power. Part 3
- is fixed at all distances from a by its set-screw d; and lastly, this socket has a long vertical screw e, by which the brace is thrust into the work. The object to be drilled having been placed level...
- Drilling And Boring Machines
- The motion of the lathe mandrel is particularly proper for giving action to the various single-cutting drills referred to; they are then fixed in square or round hole drill-chucks which screw upon the...
- Drilling And Boring Machines. Part 2
- Fig. 409, in common with all drills that cut on the side, may, by improper direction, cut sideways, making the hole above the intended diameter; but when the hole has been roughly bored with a common ...
- Drilling And Boring Machines. Part 3
- Drilling machines of these kinds are generally used with the ordinary piercing drills, and occasionally with pin drills; the latter instrument appears to be the type of another class of boring tools, ...
- Broaches For Making Taper Holes
- The tools for making taper holes are much less varied than the drills and boring tools for cylindrical holes. Figs. 418 425. The broaches for metal are made solid, and of various se...
- Chapter XXIII. Screw-Cutting Tools
- An elementary idea of the form of the screw, or helix, is obtained by considering it as a continuous circular wedge; and it is readily modeled by wrapping a wedge-formed piece of paper around a cylind...
- On Originating Screws
- It appears more than probable, that in the earliest attempts at making a screw, a sloping piece of paper was cemented around the iron cylinder; this oblique line was cut through with a stout knife or ...
- On Cutting Internal Screws, With Screw Taps
- The screw is converted into the tap by the removal of parts of its circumference, in order to give to the exposed edges a cutting action; whilst the circular parts which remain, serve for the guidance...
- On Cutting Internal Screws, With Screw Taps. Part 2
- The teeth sloped in front, as in Fig. 443, would certainly cut more keenly than those of 442, but they would be much more exposed to accident, as the least backward motion or violence would be liable ...
- On Cutting Internal Screws, With Screw Taps. Part 3
- Notwithstanding that the hole to be tapped may have been drilled straight, the tap may by improper direction proceed obliquely; the progress of the operation should be therefore watched, and unless th...
- On Cutting Internal Screws, With Screw Taps. Part 4
- In cutting the metal screw, or the bolt, the tools are required to be the converse of the tap, as they must have internal instead of external threads, but the radial notches are essential ali...
- On Cutting Internal Screws, With Screw Taps. Part 5
- Sometimes dies of the section of Fig. 458 are applied after the manner of 457, and occasionally the rectangular aperture of Fig. 460 is made parallel on its inner edges, and without the side plate b...
- On Cutting Internal Screws, With Screw Taps. Part 6
- The compression or squeezing is apt to enlarge the diameter of the screw (literally by swaging up the metal), and also to elongate it beyond its assigned length, and that unequally at different parts....
- On Cutting Internal Screws, With Screw Taps. Part 7
- The one die in 476 and 477 is merely a blank piece of brass or iron without any grooves, the other is a brass die in which the tap is fixed; as may be expected, the thread produced is not very perfect...
- Screws Cut By Hand In The Common Lathe
- Great numbers of screws are required in works of wood, ivory and metal, that cannot be cut with the taps and dies, or the other apparatus hitherto considered. This arises from the nature of the materi...
- On Cutting Screws In Lathes With Traversing Mandrels
- One of the oldest, most simple, and general apparatus for cutting short screws in the lathe, by means of a mechanical guidance, is the screw-mandrel or traversing-mandrel, which appears to have been k...
- On Cutting Screws In Lathes With Traversing Tools
- -A great number of the engines for cutting screws, and also of the other shaping and cutting engines now commonly used, are clearly to be traced to a remote date, so far as their principles are concer...
- On Cutting Screws In Lathes With Traversing Tools. Part 2
- On the outside of the chuck C is cut a coarse guide screw, which we will suppose to be right-handed. The nut n n, which fits the screw of the chuck, is extended into a long arm, and the latter communi...
- On Cutting Screws In Lathes With Traversing Tools. Part 3
- In making double thread screws the one thread is first cut, the wheels are then removed out of contact, and the mandrel is moved exactly half a turn before their replacement, the second thread is then...
- On Cutting Screws In Lathes With Traversing Tools. Part 4
- Fig. 498. The system of screw-cutting just explained is very general and practical: for instance, one long and perfect guide-screw (which we will call the guide), containing 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, or any ...
- On Cutting Screws In Lathes With Traversing Tools. Part 5
- The plan is unexceptionable, when applied for traversing the tool slowly for the purpose of turning smooth cylinders, or surfaces (which is virtually cutting a screw or spiral of about 100 coils in th...
- On Cutting Screws In Lathes With Traversing Tools. Part 6
- One blade, therefore, serves perfectly for all screws of the same pitch, both right and left-handed, and of all diameters. As the tool exactly fills the groove, it works steadily, and the width of the...
- Various Modes Of Originating And Improving Screws
- The improvement of the screw has given rise to many valuable schemes and modes of practice, which have not been noticed in the foregoing sections, notwithstanding their collective length. These practi...
- Various Modes Of Originating And Improving Screws. Part 2
- The handle h gives rotation to the work; and at the same time, by means of the rack r r, and the pinion fixed on its axis, the handle traverses a slide which carries on its upper surface a bar i; the ...
- Various Modes Of Originating And Improving Screws. Part 3
- Mr. Ramsden employed a more complex apparatus in originating the screw of his dividing engine for straight lines, which it was essential should contain exactly 20 threads in the inch; a condition unca...
- Various Modes Of Originating And Improving Screws. Part 4
- In a subsequent and stronger machine the bar carrying the mandrel stood lower than the other, to admit of larger change wheels upon it, and the same driving gear was retained. And in another structure...
- Various Modes Of Originating And Improving Screws. Part 5
- Fig. 508, 7. A cylinder about two feet long, prepared for the screw, was placed between the heads h h', and the large dies, whose inner edges were of the same diameter as the cylinder, were closed ...
- Screw Threads Considered In Respect To Their Proportions, Forms, And General Characters
- The proportions given to screws employed for attaching together the different parts of works are in nearly every case arbitrary, or, in other words, they are determined almost by experience alone rath...
- Screw Thread Proportions, Forms, General Characters. Part 2
- The mechanical power of the thread is derived from its pitch. The power, or the force of compression, is directly as the number of threads per inch, or as the rate; so that neglecting the friction in ...
- Screw Thread Proportions, Forms, General Characters. Part 3
- But the base of the thread in the nut, is equal to the cylindrical surface measured at the top of the bolt, and consequently, the mate rials being the same, and the length the same, considering the st...
- Screw Thread Proportions, Forms, General Characters. Part 4
- Should it be required to be able to compensate the nut, or to re-adapt it to the lessened size of the screw when both have been worn, the nut is made in two parts and compressed by screws, or it is ma...
- Screw Thread Proportions, Forms, General Characters. Part 5
- Fig. 526, in which the angle is about 60 degrees, is used for most of the screws made in wood, whether in the screw-box or the turning lathe; and also for a very large proportion of the screw bolts of...
- Screw Thread Proportions, Forms, General Characters. Part 6
- When the obliquity of the teeth of worm wheels is small, it gives a very smooth action, but. at the expense of friction; but in ordinary toothed wheels, the teeth are exactly square across or in the p...
- Screw Thread Proportions, Forms, General Characters. Part 7
- Angular thread screws of 8 6 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 inches diameter would have pitches of 1 3/4 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32 ...
- Screw Thread Proportions, Forms, General Characters. Part 8
- Thirdly: Unless the standard sizes of screws become inconveniently numerous, many useful kinds must be omitted, or treated as exceptions. For instance, in ordinary binding screws, more particularly in...
- Screw Thread Proportions, Forms, General Characters. Part 9
- It must, however, be unhesitatingly granted, that the argument applies but little, if at all, to a variety of screws which from their smaller size are not made in the screw lathe, but with die-stocks ...
- Chapter XXIV. History Of The Art Of Electro-Metallurgy
- In reviewing the rise and progress of any discovery in the arts and sciences, particularly of one connected with the application of chemistry to manufacturing purposes, there are two circumstances whi...
- History Of The Art Of Electro-Metallurgy. Part 2
- Early Opinions Concerning Electro-Decomposition The above few instances are selected from a host of a similar kind upon electro-decomposition, to show that the fact of the deposition of metals by an ...
- History Of The Art Of Electro-Metallurgy. Part 3
- In consequence of this announcement, Mr. Spender, on the 8th of May, 1839, gave notice to the Liverpool Polytechnic Institution that he should make a communication to them of his process for effecting...
- History Of The Art Of Electro-Metallurgy. Part 4
- Historical Anomaly During a period of nearly five years - while the country was passing through an electrotyping mania - Mr. Spencer held the undivided honor of being the first to apply the depositio...
- History Of The Art Of Electro-Metallurgy. Part 5
- I now bent the wire in such a manner that the zinc end of the arrangement should be in the saline solution, while the copper end, when in its place, should be in the cupreous solution. The gas glass,...
- History Of The Art Of Electro-Metallurgy. Part 6
- I now considered part of the difficulties removed: the principal one yet remaining was to find a cement or etching-ground, the texture of which should be capable of being cut to the re- * This plate...
- History Of The Art Of Electro-Metallurgy. Part 7
- I had often practised, with some degree of success, a method of preventing the oxidation of polished steel, by slightly heating it until it would melt fine beeswax: it was then wiped, apparently comp...
- History Of The Art Of Electro-Metallurgy. Part 8
- [At the close of the paper, several specimens of coins, medals, and copper plates, some of them in the act of formation by the voltaic process, were exhibited by Mr. Spencer to the Society.] o2, Outer...
- History Of The Art Of Electro-Metallurgy. Part 9
- Law II. - Every metal is thrown down in a crystalline state, when there is no evolution of gas from the negative plate, or no tendency thereto. Law III. - Metals are reduced in the reguline state, ...
- Chapter XXV. Description Of Galvanic Batteries, And Their Respective Peculiarities. Nomenclature
- The terms that are employed to denote the various parts of a galvanic battery, and of other electrotype arrangements, frequently puzzle the student, and lead him into difficulties. Before we proceed t...
- Batteries. Single Pair Of Plates
- If a piece of ordinary metallic zinc be put into dilute sulphuric acid, it is speedily acted upon by the acid, and hydrogen gas is at the same time evolved from its surface, having a disagreable smell...
- Best Kind Of Zinc
- The zinc used for the battery should be milled or rolled zinc, not thinner than 1/8th of an inch, otherwise the waste will be very great; for amalgamated zinc, when it becomes thin, is so tender and b...
- Amalgamation Of The Zinc Plates
- The amalgamation of zinc is a process exceedingly simple; nevertheless, if care be not taken, a very great loss in mercury and zinc is soon effected. A stoneware pan is best to use, and should be suff...
- Economy In Amalgamation
- If the battery is to be used seldom, and only for a short period at a time, another method of amalgamation may be adopted. The zinc plate, after lying in the dilute acid till the surface is bright, ma...
- Distance Between The Battery Plates
- To return again to the battery-cell. It will be found that if the two metals - the zinc and copper in acid, Fig. 544 - be put very close to each other, the action will be much more rapid than when the...
- Different Elements Of Batteries
- Although our observa lions have been made on zinc, copper, and dilute sulphuric acid in 33 the battery-cell, still these are not the only essential elements in a battery, as almost any two metals with...
- Properties Of Metals Fit For Batteries
- In looking to the above table, it may be asked, Since lead stands next to copper, and is so much cheaper, why should it not be used instead? The reason is, that there are other properties which a me...
- Babington's Battery
- If we look back to the description given of the voltaic pile (page 489), and the improvement made upon it by Cruikshanks, we perceive the relation they bear to the pieces of copper and zinc mentioned ...
- Wollaston's Battery
- Although we have spoken of the great value of amalgamated zinc for batteries, still at the period when the arrangement just described was introduced, amalgamation was not known; and the zinc plates we...
- Modification Of Wollaston's Battery Now In Use
- Wollaston's battery is still generally used in large factories for depositing metals; and it is found by experience to be the most convenient and economical of all the batteries yet contrived. The mod...
- Defects Of Common Acid Batteries
- Although we have spoken thus favorably of the principles upon which Wollaston's battery is constructed, still as a philosophical instrument it is far from being perfect: hence the many modifications o...
- Daniell's Battery
- A few years ago, some of the disadvantages now detailed were to a great extent overcome by a very ingenious arrangement discovered by the late Professor Daniell. The discovery consists in the separati...
- Grove's Battery
- Another battery, constructed upon the same principle as Daniell's, but differing in the arrangement of the metals, and the substances used to excite them, was invented by Mr. Grove, and is known as Gr...
- Smee's Battery
- Some of the defects in the common battery of zinc and copper were much lessened by an ingenious contrivance, of Mr. Alfred Smee. This gentleman had observed that if the copper plate of the battery be ...
- Earth Battery
- The fact that when a piece of copper and a 34 piece of zinc are imbedded in the earth and connected by a wire, there is a current of electricity obtained from them, in the same way as if they were pla...
- Magneto-Electric Machine
- Several years ago, Mr. Wool-rich, of Birmingham, patented a discovery for applying to the deposition of metals the electricity obtained from magnetism or the magneto-electric current, instead of volta...
- Chapter XXVI. Electrotype Processes. Single-Cell Operations
- We shall now proceed to detail the process of electrotyping, the materials for which are of the most simple nature. Let us suppose that the object of the student is to copy a copper medal - for exampl...
- Preparation Of The Coin
- A fine copper wire must now be put round the edge of the coin and fastened by twisting. Then cover the back part, upon which the deposit is not required, with beeswax or tallow, or, what is better, im...
- Forms Of Apparatus
- It will be observed that no particular form of apparatus is required for electrotyping, but certain modifications may be adopted for convenience and economy. As every portion of the zinc in the acid i...
- Comparative Value Of Exciting Solutions
- We have recommended the porous cell being filled by dilute sulphuric acid, which we consider best; but other saline solutions will serve the same purpose: solutions of common salt, sal ammoniac, sulph...
- Electrotype Processes
- Solution in porous Cell. Zinc dissolved. Copper deposited. Sal ammoniac. oz. dwt. gr. oz. dwt. gr. Saturated solution . . . . 1 ...
- How Often Solutions Should Be Changed And Zinc Amalgamated
- Students have often put this question to us: How often should the solution in the cell be renewed, and the zinc plate be amalgamated? The following are the results of many trials made to ascertain the...
- Making Of Moulds
- The directions giving for obtaining a mould from a penny-piece, by deposition, are applicable to taking moulds from any metallic medal, engraving, or figure that is not undercut; and for depositing wi...
- To Take Moulds In Wax
- The medal to be copied must be brushed over with a little sweet oil: a soft brush, called a painter's sash tool, suits this purpose well: care must be taken to brush the oil well into all parts of the...
- Moulds In Plaster
- If a plaster of Paris mould is to be taken from the metallic medal, the preparation of the medal is the same as described above; and when so prepared with the rim of cardboard or tin, get a basin with...
- Moulds In Fusible Alloy
- The next means of taking moulds is by fusible metal. This name is given to alloys of two or more metals which melt at a very low temperature; it suits the purpose of taking moulds of small objects ver...
- Moulds In Gutta Percha
- Gutta percha, as a material for moulding, serves the purpose most admirably. We have seen moulds of this substance equal if not superior to any that we ever saw taken in wax, and of a depth of cutting...
- Moulds From Ferns, Sea-Weed, Etc
- A method of taking impressions of fern-leaves and sea-weeds has recently been proposed by Dr. F. Branson, in the Athenaeum. It is thus described: A piece of gutta percha, free from blemish, and the ...
- Nature Printing
- A further improvement upon making moulds of leaves and other vegetable objects, has been practised by an eminent firm in London. The leaf is carefully dried and laid upon a smooth piece of milled lead...
- Wax Moulds From Plaster
- If the object, which we assume to be a medal, from which the mould is to be taken, be composed of plaster of Paris, and the mould to be taken is in wax, the first operation is to prepare the plaster m...
- Mould Of Plaster From Plaster Models
- When a plaster mould is to be taken, the face of the model is prepared differently to that described, in order to prevent the adhesion of the two plasters. The best substance we have tried for this pu...
- Copper Moulds From Plaster
- Many electro-metallurgists prefer taking a mould in copper when the medal is of plaster of Paris. This is done by the electrotype process; the plaster model is saturated with wax over a slow fire, as ...
- Elastic Moulding
- The process patented by Mr. Parks for taking a mould of any kind of model in one piece, is excellently adapted for the electrotypist. The material is composed of glue and treacle. Twelve pounds of glu...
- Moulding Of Figures
- If the model or figure be composed of plaster of Paris, a mould is often taken in copper by deposition. The figure is saturated with wax, as described for a medal, and copper deposited upon it suffici...
- The Preparation of Non-Metallic Moulds to receive Deposit
- Having detailed what we have found best for obtaining moulds of objects for the purpose of electrotyping, we proceed to the manner of obtaining a deposit upon these moulds. Were any of the plaster or ...
- Using Metal Moulds
- The mould in fusible alloy does not require to be black-leaded, but the back and edge must be protected by a coating of wax or other non-conducting material; it may be connected in the same way as the...
- Deposition On Large Objects
- When busts or figures, whether of wax or plaster of Paris, are to be coated with copper, with no other conducting surface than black lead, it is attended with considerable difficulty to the inexperien...
- To Make Busts And Figures
- Busts and figures, and other complicated works of art, which cannot be perfectly coated with black lead, may be covered by a film of silver or gold, which serves as a conducting medium to the copper. ...
- Coating Of Flowers, Etc
- If the solution is to be applied to the surface of the article, an addition is made to it of one pound of wax or tallow, one pint of spirits of turpentine, and two ounces of India rubber, dissolved w...
- Figures From Elastic Moulds
- When taking a wax cast from the elastic mould, described in page 544, we prefer the phos-phorized mixture. After taking out the mould it is only necessary to make the connections, and pass it through ...
- Electrotypes From Daguerreotypes
- What may be justly-termed the perfection of electrotyping, is the production of electrotypes from daguerreotypes. The daguerreotype picture being taken, a small portion of the back is cleaned with san...
- Depositing By Separate Battery
- Having described, so far as we know them, the best and most simple means of obtaining moulds, and their preparation for receiving the deposit of the metal, we return again to the management of solutio...
- Relative Power Of Batteries
- The following experiments, made with electrodes double the size of the zinc plates of the batteries, all at equal distances (1 inch apart), will show the relative power of the batteries. The time in a...
- Constancy Of Batteries
- But the first hour of the action of most batteries differs from an hour afterwards, so that one kind of battery may be most useful for a short time, and another sort if the action is to be continued f...
- Comparative Produce Of Batteries
- The expense of the materials used in these experiments was as follows (of course the materials will differ in cost both at different times and in different localities, and more common materials may be...
- Recovery Of Mercury From Waste Zinc
- The general practice of manufacturers, when the scraps of zinc become small, is either to treat them as referred to at page 512, to distil the mercury from the zinc, or to sell the scraps to parties w...
- Compound Cell Process
- Another method of economizing power was proposed in what is termed the compound cell system, by which it was said that the electricity passing through a series of cells would be able to produce the sa...
- Effects Of Resistance
- At page 551 we mentioned, that if a single cell deposits 100 grains in a given time, and it be converted into a battery having the two electrodes in a solution of sulphate of copper, there will only b...
- Intensity
- If we now take another zinc and copper plate of the same size as the former, and arrange them in the acid solution, and connect them with the copper plates in the decomposition cell, as shown in Fig. ...
- Relative Intensity Of Batteries
- Different batteries have different degrees of power to overcome resistance - greater intensity. The following experiments will illustrate this: A single pair of a Wollaston's, Smee's, and Grove's batt...
- Mode Of Suspending Objects For Coating
- In beginning to operate in the art of electrotyping, the student often pauses, and asks the question, What is the best position in which a medal should be hung in the solution? Convenience has brought...
- Non-Transfer Of Elements
- Tn a paper read upon this subject before the Royal Society by the late Professor Daniell and Professor Miller, they gave, as the results of their investigations, that certain metals are transferred by...
- Chapter XXVII. Miscellaneous Applications Of The Process Of Coating With Copper
- Besides the applications and processes which we have described a tier the general term of electrotyping, there are various applica-tions of the process of depositing metals upon other substances, whic...
- Glypography
- A process which Mr. Palmer, the inventor, named Glyphography, has been one of the most successful attempts to apply the electrotype to the art of engraving. The principle of the invention consists in ...
- Instructions On Glyphography For The Amateur
- The amateur must remember that he is producing a work of art for the surface press, and not for copperplate printing. The drawing or etching should not be made with lines of equal thickness in all ...
- Coating Of Glass And Porcelain
- This is done by putting a fine coating of copal varnish over the glass, then black-leading it, and depositing the copper. Another method has been proposed, namely, to make a varnish of two parts aspha...
- On Galvanic Soldering
- Among the many applications of the deposition of metals, there is one we have been often asked about, namely, if it would not be possible to solder different metals together by that process. The follo...
- Galvano-Plastic Niello
- Niello, a peculiar style of enamelling, consists in engraving or stamping figures on a plate of silver or gold, and then filling the incised lines or impressed pattern with a sort of enamel - differin...
- Chapter XXVIII. Bronzing
- We have already mentioned that when a medal has been made from a metallic mould, protected by a little wax dissolved in turpentine, it retains its bright copper lustre for a long time, even when expos...
- Black Bronzes
- A very dark colored bronze may be obtained by using a little sulphuretted alkali (sulphuret of ammonia is best). The face of the medal is washed over with the solution, which should be dilute, and the...
- Green Bronzes
- Green bronzes require a little more time than those already described. They depend upon the formation of an acetate, carbonate, or other green salt of copper upon the surface of the medal. Steeping fo...
- Chapter XXIX. Deposition Of Metals Upon One Another. Coating Of Iron With Copper
- Besides making articles of solid copper, we may at a small cost give a coating of copper to another metal, such as iron, which if kept in a dry place, will retaiu the appearance of copper for any leng...
- Cyanide Of Potassium
- This substance may be prepared by exposing ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate of potash) to a red heat in an iron crucible; then pounding the mass, and boiling it in alcohol of about spec. gr...
- Cyanide Of Copper
- To prepare copper solutions by means of cyanide of potassium, for covering iron and other positive metals, there are several methods. First Method To a solution of sulphate of copper, add by degrees...
- Peculiarities In Working Cyanide Of Copper Solution
- The true composition of the salts thus formed by copper and cyanide of potassium has not yet been determined, being both various and complicated, but their relations to the battery and electrolyzation...
- Preparation Of Iron For Coating With Copper
- When it is required to cover an iron article with copper, it is first steeped in hot caustic potash or soda, to remove any grease or oil. Being washed from that, it is placed for a short time in dilut...
- Effects Of Conducting Power In Solutions And Metals
- In covering iron, platinum, or such comparatively bad-conducting metals, with other metals that are good conductors, or the solutions of which are good conductors, the property of conduction in relati...
- Illustration Of Conduction
- As an illustration of the property of conduction, we mention the following circumstance: - Having a large iron shaft, or rod, about 12 feet long and 3 inches average diameter, to cover with copper, we...
- Non-Adherence Of Deposit
- Objections have been made to covering iron with copper for its protection, from an impression that the copper will not adhere to the iron; but if the operation is carefully performed the copper will a...
- Coating Cast-Iron With Other Metals
- Mr.W.Newton (for a correspondent) has patented the coating cast-iron permanently with copper, by depositing the copper by galvanic action, from a solu tion prepared by first taking a saturated soluti...
- Coating Of Iron With Zinc
- In covering iron with zinc, the precautions necessary for copper are not required: zinc being the positive metal, acids have a stronger affinity for it than for iron, and therefore an acid solution ma...
- Influence Of Galvanism In Protecting Metals From Destruction By Oxidation And Solution
- The galvanic influence of one metal in protecting another is in relation to their negative and positive qualities together with their conducting powers (p. 515). Their relations in sea-water are - sil...
- Chapter XXX. Electro-Plating. To Make Silver Solution
- The next applications of the electro-deposition we have to notice are those relating to silver and gold, embracing the arts of electro-plating and gilding - arts which are gradually revolutionizing so...
- Solution Made With Oxide Of Silver
- It has been recommended to dissolve the oxide of silver in cyanide of potassium, which forms a solution of cyanide of potassium and silver; but this preparation is less economical, because the materia...
- Solution Made With Chloride Of Silver
- The nitrate of silver may also be precipitated by adding a solution of common salt to it, and treating it in the same way as described for precipitation by cyanide of potassium: this would form chlori...
- The Best Method Of Making Silver Solution
- The best and cheapest method of making up the silver solution is by the battery, which saves all expense of acids and the labor of precipitation. This is effected by taking advantage of the principle ...
- Hyposulphite Of Silver Solution
- The simplest method known to us for forming the hyposulphite of silver solution is this: Take one pound of pure carbonate of soda, well dried, as described at page 576; mix it intimately with five oun...
- Sulphite Of Silver Plating Solution
- The sulphite of silver solution is prepared in the following manner, as described by the patentee of the process: The solution which I use is made in the following manner: I take of the best pearl-a...
- To Recover Silver From Solution
- When a silver solution gets out of order, and cannot be rendered fit for use again, the silver may be recovered by adding to the solution any acid that will neutralize the alkali; if nitric or sulphur...
- Preparation Of Articles For Plating
- Articles that are to be plated are first boiled in an alkaline ley, to free them from grease, then washed from the ley, and dipped into dilute nitric acid, which removes any oxide that may be formed u...
- Practical Instructions In Plating
- We need hardly add that it is necessary that the battery should be so arranged, that the quantity of electricity generated should correspond with the surface of the articles to be coated, and that the...
- Taking Silver From Copper, Etc
- First, stripping or dissolving it off; this is done by putting into a stoneware or copper pan some strong sulphuric acid (vitriol), to which a little nitrate of potash is added: the article is laid in...
- Cyanide Of Silver And Potassium, Its Decomposition During The Plating Process
- The silver salt in the plating solution is a true double salt, being, as already described, a compound of one equivalent of cyanide of silver, and one of cyanide of potassium - two distinct salts. In...
- Machine For Moving Goods While Subjecting To The Electro-Plating Process
- Fig. 584, side elevation, with front frame off; Fig. 585, end elevation of that part of front frame where the fly is held; Figs. 586 and 587, the plating vat, with frame moving on inclined plane. Fig...
- Deposit Dissolving Off In Solution
- In depositing any metal, but more particularly such as require solutions having an excess of the solvent, such as of cyanide of potassium in the depositing of gold and silver, care should be taken tha...
- Opposite Currents Of Electricity From Yats
- If, under the circumstances referred to, and when the deposit has gone on for some time, the wires connecting the battery with the electrodes in the depositing solution be disconnected from the batter...
- Test For The Quantity Of Free Cyanide Of Potassium In Solutions
- It has been already mentioned that the cyanide of silver, as it forms upon the surface of the silver plate, is dissolved by the cyanide of potassium. This renders it necessary to have always in the so...
- Rate Of Depositing Silver
- When articles are taken out of the solution they are swilled in water, and then put into boiling water. They are afterwards put into hot sawdust, which dries them perfectly. Their color is chalk-white...
- Different Metals For Plating
- Silver may be deposited upon any metal, but not upon all with equal facility. Copper, brass, and German silver, are the best metals to plate; iron, zinc, tin, pewter, and Britannia metal, are much mor...
- Electricity Given Off From Sandy Deposits
- We may mention that when depositing silver upon a large surface, and the solution or battery being in the condition to give the sandy deposit, or rather when the deposit has gone on for a long time an...
- The Old Method Of Plating
- Many objections have been urged against the application of electro-deposition to the purposes of plating, as a branch of manufacture, either as a competitor or substitute for the old method, technical...
- Advantages Of Electro-Plating
- The advantages offered to the plater by the electro-process are many, arising from the fact of the articles being plated after, instead of before, being manufactured. This at once entirely removed all...
- Objections To Electro-Plating
- Several objections to the electro-process have been keenly urged; but they may all be reduced to the following: 1st objection: Deposited metal is crystalline, and therefore, though it may impart in a...
- Solid Silver Articles Made By The Battery
- Silver may be deposited from its cyanide solution upon wax moulds polished with black lead, almost as easily as copper; but for this purpose it is better to have the solution much stronger in silver t...
- Dead Silvering For Medals
- The perfect smoothness which a medal generally possesses on the surface, renders it very difficult to obtain a coating of dead silver upon it, having the beautiful silky lustre which characterizes tha...
- Oxidizing Silver
- A very beautiful effect is produced upon the surface of silver articles technically termed oxidizing, which gives the surface an appearance of polished steel. This can be easily effected by taking a l...
- Protection Of Silver Surface
- All silver or plated articles 39 are subject to tarnish by exposure to the air, especially in this cli mate, and where coals containing so much sulphur are used; the tarnish being generally a sulphure...
- Cleaning Of Silver
- A weak solution of cyanide of potassium, used as a wash over tarnished silver, will brighten it. This solution was, and we believe is still, sold in small bottles for this purpose, but it is not good,...
- Chapter XXXI. Electro-Gilding
- The operation of gilding, or covering other metals with a coa'. ing of gold, is performed in the same manner as the operation of plating, with the exception of a few practical modifications, which we ...
- Battery Process Of Preparing Gold Solution
- The best method of preparing the gold solution is that described for silver (p. 589). Say the operator wishes to prepare a gallon of gold so lution, he dissolves four ounces of cyanide of potassium in...
- Process Of Gilding
- The process of gilding is generally performed upon silver articles. The method of proceeding is as follows: When the articles are cleaned as described in our chapter on plating, they are weighed, and ...
- Maintaining The Gold Solution
- As the gold solution evaporates by being hot, distilled water must from time to time be added. The water should always be added when the operation of gilding is over, not when it is about to be commen...
- To Regulate The Color Of The Gilding
- The gold upon the gilt article, on coming out of the solution should be of a dark-yellow color, approaching to brown, but this when scratched will yield a beautifully-rich deep gold. If the color is b...
- To Dissolve Gold From Gilt Articles
- Before regilding articles which are partly covered with gold, or when the gilding is imperfect, and the articles require regilding, the gold should be removed from them by putting them into strong nit...
- Objections To Electro-Gilding
- Objections have also been made to the application of electro-gilding to the arts, of the same kind as those urged against electro-plating; but the now almost universal adoption of this process by gild...
- Effects Of Cyanogen On Health
- The effects produced upon the health of those who work constantly over cyanide solutions are not yet fully tested, by which we could form a comparison with the old process; for every new trade, or ope...
- Practical Suggestions In Gilding
- According to the amount of gold deposited, so will be its durability: a few grains will serve to give a gold color to a very large surface, but it will not last: this proves, however, that the process...
- Chapter XXXII. Results Of Experiments On The Deposition On Other Metals As Coatings
- Coating With Platinum This metal has never yet been successfully deposited as a protecting coating to other metals. A solution may be made by dissolving it in a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, ...
- Aluminium And Silicium
- Since the publication of the former edition of this work, new methods have been discovered for obtaining the base or metal of alumina and silica, or clay and sand, in the metallic state possessing ext...
- Deposition Of Alloys
- Many attempts have been made to deposit alloys of metals from their solutions. That two or more metals can be deposited from a solution we have seen sufficient evidence; but the means to regulate the ...
- Deposition Of Alloys. Continued
- The solutions for the alloys of gold, silver, and other alloys of metals, are made in the same manner as above stated, by employing anodes of the alloy or alloys to be deposited; or by adding to the ...
- Deposition Of Bronze
- The following solutions of different metals are given by Brunei, Bisson, and Gaugain, as being capable of giving a deposit of bronze: 50 parts Carbonate of Potash, 2 ,, ...
- Chapter XXXIII. Theoretical Observations
- We have described at considerable length the practical details connected with the art of electro-metallurgy, without pausing to inquire into the philosophy of the action of the electric currents by w...
- Faraday's Theory Of Electrolysis
- Professor Faraday says - Passing to the consideration of electro-chemical decomposition, it appears to me that the effect is produced by an internal corpuscular action, excited according to the direc...
- Graham's Theory Of Electrolysis
- Professor Graham supposes that the compound particles, such as sulphate of copper, possess polarity, so that the particles in the battery or decomposition cell will stand in relation to each other in ...
- Daniell's And Miller's Views
- Theories varying little from these were held by the late Professor Daniell, till, by a series of interesting experiments, in company with Professor Miller, he found that there is no mutual transfer of...
- Appendix. The Manufacture Of Russian Sheet-Iron
- A particular kind of sheet-iron is manufactured in Russia, which, so far as I know, has not been produced elsewhere. It is remarkable for its smooth, glossy surface, which is dark metallic gray, and n...
- Russian Weights And Measures Used In The Following Pages
- Weights: - 1 lb. Russian = 0 90264 lb. avoirdupois; 1 Pood = 36.1056 lbs. avoirdupois. Measure: - 1 Archiue = 28 Euglish inches. The proportions of carbon in the thick and the thin sheets were ascert...
- Description Of The Mode Of Manufacture By Mr. Septimus Beardmore
- This kind of sheet-iron is produced from the ordinary sheet-iron, which is derived from malleable iron, obtained either by puddling or by the Comtoise or Franche-Comte process, termed in Russia the Ki...
- Description Of The Mode Of Manufacture By Prof. Pumpelly
- Pumpelly, Professor of Mining Engineering at Harvard University, U.S.A., with whom I have the pleasure of being personally acquainted, has recently published the following description of the process, ...
- Description Of The Mode Of Manufacture By Herbert Barry
- The latest published account of the process of manufacturing this kind of Russian sheet-iron in the Oural which I have met with is that of Mr. Herbert Barry, and is as follows: finished, from 6 to 12 ...
- Description Of The Mode Of Manufacture, Communicated To The Author By N. De Khanikof
- Towards the end of the last year (1870), I had the pleasure of making the acquaintance of Mr. N. de Khanikof, an eminent Russian man of science, while he was temporarily residing in London, and I aske...
- Description Of The Mode Of Manufacture By Captain N. Meshtcherin
- Toward the end of the year 1866,1 was favored with a letter from a Russian mining engineer, Captain N. Meshtcherin, containing a much more circumstantial and satisfactory description of the mode of ma...
- Description Of The Mode Of Manufacture By Captain N. Meshtcherin. Continued
- Fig. 599. Fig. 600. Fig. 599. Transverse section on the line C D, Fig. 597. Fig. 600. End elevation, where the sheets are put in. The following Letters, with Descriptive Remarks, apply to Figs....
- American Sheet-Iron
- The manufacture of sheet-iron, although a branch of the iron industry full of difficulties and peculiarities, has nevertheless been carried to a higher state of advancement in the United States than a...
- Malleable Iron Castings
- Malleable iron is the term employed to designate those castings, the brittleness of which has been partly or entirely removed by the operation of annealing, which consists in burning off the whole...
- Malleable Iron Castings. Continued
- The manufacture of malleable iron castings is older than is generally thought, although the knowledge of the true principles on which it is based dates from the more recent period of the establishment...
- Bessemer Steel. Improvements In The Process
- The Bessemer process, as it was conducted several years since, has already been completely described in this work. The pig-metal still continues to be decarburized by the oxygen of a powerful blast, b...
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