Revival of Learning and Commerce

Charlemagne A. D. 768-814

Passing over a period of perhaps two centuries after the reign of Charlemagne, in which there were some occasional indications of the dawn of a brighter era, the inhabitants of Europe finally began, about the eleventh century, to experience a change auspicious of better times. The art of making paper in the manner now become universal was invented, and greatly increased the number of manuscripts and the general diffusion of learning. This, followed by the discovery of the art of printing, brought the price of books within the reach of those of moderate means. Then came the discovery of the mariner's compass, making it possible to extend navigation which had hitherto been confined to the coast and the Mediterranean Sea, over the ocean, leading to new and rich discoveries, and preparing the way for the commerce of the future. The Feudal system* had been established after the reign of Charlemagne, and this favored the growth of towns and consequently an increase in industry and commerce by the stability which it gave to property and society in general. Trade guilds and craft 'guilds were organized, suggesting the idea of mutual help and co-operation. Trade guilds embodied the idea of our modern chambers of commerce, and exerted considerable influence upon the government of the town. Craft guilds aimed to secure good handiwork on the part of members, to regulate the number of apprentices and to provide a common fund in case of sickness, very much after the plan of labor unions in our day. While the introduction of the Feudal system was an aid to commerce by settling society into a more stable and organized form, it finally became a hinderance on account of the restrictions which it imposed upon both property and persons. The service exacted of vassals often interfered with their employment by calling them away from agriculture or other occupations at times when they were needed. The lords levied heavy assessments and fines upon those who were dependent upon them for every attempted change of occupation, so that those who desired to give up agriculture and become artisans or traders were hampered in their efforts. Jealousies and rivalries between the lords of different territories caused taxes to be laid upon the commerce between one domain and original inhabitants upon the payment of a tax. But for the purpose of binding certain of his subjects more closely to the throne, the king granted out a part of his own land to them for life. This was called a fief; the giver was the liege lord, and the receiver was called a vassal In the same way, those who had acquired large life estates as fiefs, sub-let to those less fortunate, portions of their estates and thus had vassals of their own. Bishops gave fiefs to knights for services in defending convents, and thus society was bound together by a system of service and obligations for mutual protection and defense. Gradually the more powerful oppressed those under them until the class which cultivated the soil became hereditary serfs attached to the land, and in reality slaves. The Feudal system, while affording the benefits of protection to property, was a great hinderance to freedom of both person and property, since under it land could not be conveyed, nor serfs transferred readily.

*The Feudal system was a combination of Roman and German laws and customs involving the tenure or ownership of land and military service to the lords or the king. After the conquest of the Roman provinces in France and Germany the land was generally divided by the conquerors into three portions: the king took one; another he divided among his generals and soldiers under the condition of military service; the third was left to the another, and thus the system eventually proved to be restrictive and injurious to the development of trade and commerce.

About the twelfth century a number of Italian cities came into prominence on account of the trade and manufactures which they had built up. Among these Venice, situated on a group of sandy and barren islands in the Adriatic Sea, whither its inhabitants had been driven by the armies of Attila, was the most important. The wealth of Venice was originally due to two articles of commerce, viz., salt and fish, these being the only products obtainable on account of the location of the city. The Venetians built up a large trade with mainland cities, and eventually embarked in the carrying trade. Their ships went up and down the coast, as far east as Greece and west to Spain. Salt and fish were exchanged with other cities for oil, wine, lumber and metals. Extending her commerce, Venice brought the products of Egypt and the East to her wharves, and the city soon became the emporium of southern Europe. Her ships now touched every shore and part of the then civilized world, and her commerce included every article of value. To protect her ships from robbers and pirates she built an extensive navy, and each fleet of ships was convoyed by a man of war. Her merchant squadrons numbered in all over 3,000 ships, and made regular sailings. Besides her maritime commerce, Venice built up a large overland trade with Germany and central European points.