If the characteristics of the recent immigrant labor supply to the United States, as outlined above, be carefully borne in mind, the conditions which have been produced by its employment may be quickly realized.

Effect upon the use of machinery. . . . The lack of skill and industrial training of the recent immigrant to the United States has stimulated the invention of mechanical methods and processes which might be conducted by unskilled industrial workers as a substitute for the skilled operatives formerly required. This condition of affairs obviously must have been true, or the expansion of American industry within recent years would not have been possible. A large number of illustrations of this tendency might be cited. Probably three of the best, however, are the automatic looms and the ring spindles in the cotton-goods manufacturing industry, the bottle blowing and casting machines in bottle and other glass factories, and the machines for mining coal.

Change of the form of industrial organization. Another, but more minor, general industrial effect of the employment of the southern and eastern Europeans is observable in the increase in the number of subforemen in many industries. This situation arises principally from the fact that the recent immigrants are usually of non-English-speaking races, and therefore require a larger amount of supervision than the native Americans and older immigrants from the United Kingdom and northern Europe. The function of the subordinate foremen is chiefly that of an interpreter.

As regards other changes in industrial organization and methods, probably the most important effect observable is seen in the creation of a number of special occupations, the incumbents of which perform all the dangerous or responsible work which before the employment of southern and eastern Europeans was distributed over the entire operating force. The best example of this tendency is to be found in the newly developed occupation of "shot-firer" in bituminous and anthracite coal mines. The mine worker in this occupation prepares and discharges the blasts or shots for bringing down the coal. Until within recent years each miner did his own blasting, but with the employment of the untrained southern and eastern Europeans in the mines, it was soon found that the safety of the operating forces and the maintenance of the quality of the output required that blasting should be done by experienced native American or older immigrant employees. . . .

Working conditions. The lack of industrial training and experience of the recent immigrant before coming to the United States, together with his illiteracy and inability to speak English, has had the effect of exposing the original employees to unsafe and unsanitary working conditions, or has led to the imposition of conditions of employment which the native American or older immigrant employees have considered unsatisfactory and in some cases unbearable. When the older employees have found dangerous and unhealthy conditions prevailing in the mines and manufacturing establishments and have protested, the recent immigrant employees, usually through ignorance of mining or other working methods, have manifested a willingness to accept the alleged unsatisfactory conditions. In a large number of cases the lack of training and experience of the southern and eastern European affects only his own safety. On the other hand, his ignorant acquiescence in dangerous and unsanitary working conditions may make the continuance of such conditions possible and become a menace to a part or to the whole of an operating force of an industrial establishment. In mining, the presence of an untrained employee may constitute an element of danger to the entire body of workmen. There seems to be a direct causal relation between the extensive employment of recent immigrants in American mines and the extraordinary increase within recent years in the number of mining accidents. It is an undisputed fact that the greatest number of accidents in bituminous coal mines arise from two causes: (1) the recklessness, and (2) the ignorance and inexperience of employees. When the lack of training of the recent immigrant abroad is considered in connection with the fact that he becomes a workman in the mines immediately upon his arrival in this country, and when it is recalled that a large proportion of the new arrivals are not only illiterate and unable to read any precautionary notices posted in the mines, but also unable to speak English and consequently without ability to comprehend instructions intelligently, the inference is plain that the employment of recent immigrants has caused a deterioration in working conditions.

No complete statistics have been compiled as to the connection between accidents and races employed, but the figures available clearly indicate the conclusion that there has been a direct relation between the employment of untrained foreigners and the prevalence of mining casualties. The mining inspectors of the several coal-producing States, the United States Geological Survey, and the older employees in the industry, also bear testimony in this respect to the effect of the employment of the southern and eastern European. The opinion of the Geological Survey is of especial interest and may be briefly quoted:

Another important factor in the United States is to be found in the nationality of the miners. Most of the men are foreign-born, a large proportion of them are unable to understand English freely, and a still larger number are unable to read or write that language. Soma of them are inexperienced and do not take proper precautions either for their own safety or that of others. This becomes a most serious menace unless they are restrained by properly enforced regulations. . . •

• The immigrant and labor organizations. The entrance into operating forces of the mines and manufacturing establishments, in such large numbers, of the races of recent immigration, has also had the effect of weakening the labor organizations of the original employees, and in some of the industries has caused their entire demoralization and disruption. This has been due to the character of the recent immigrant labor supply, and to the fact that so large numbers of recent immigrants have found employment in American industries within such a short period of time. On account of lack of industrial training and experience, low standards of living, as compared with native American wage-earners, their necessitous condition on coming to this country and their tractability, southern and eastern Europeans, as already noted, have been willing to accept the existing rates of compensation and working conditions. The thriftiness and in-dustriousness of recent immigrants have also made them unwilling to enter into labor disputes involving loss of time, or to join labor organizations to which it is necessary to pay regular dues. As a consequence, they have not affiliated with labor organizations unless compelled to do so as a preliminary step toward acquiring work; and then, after becoming members of the labor union, they have manifested but little interest in the tenets or policy of the organization. In the instances where they have united with the labor organizations, on the occasion of strikes or labor dissensions, they have usually refused to maintain membership for any extended period of time, thus rendering difficult the unionization of the industry or occupation in which they are engaged.