In boiling meat we leave the meat whole, that only a small surface may be exposed. Plunge it into boiling salted water enough to cover, and keep it there for five or ten minutes. This hardens the albumen over the entire surface, and makes a coating through which the juices cannot escape. Then move the kettle where the water will be just below the boiling-point. Cover tightly to keep in the steam and the volatile, aromatic compounds which give flavor to the meat. A small amount of albumen from the outer surface will be dissolved and rise as scum. This should be removed, or it will settle on the meat and render it uninviting in appearance. The salt coagulates this albumen and helps it to rise. It also slightly raises the boiling-point of the water, and by increasing its density aids in preventing the escape of the juices.

Meat cooked in this way requires a longer time than when kept boiling furiously, but it is made more tender, and has a better flavor. It will take fifteen or twenty minutes for the heat to penetrate to the centre of the meat before the cooking process begins. Then allow twelve or fifteen minutes for each pound of meat.1 Two pounds in a cubical form will require a longer time than the same weight cut thin and having a broad surface.

1 See page 62.

Notwithstanding the pains we take to keep the nutriment in the meat, some portion of it escapes into the water, and therefore the water should be saved and used for a gravy or in warming over the meat.

Meat is sometimes cooked in water in the oven instead of over the fire, and this way of cooking is often erroneously called roasting.

Roasting means to heat violently, and is done either before the open fire, or in a very hot oven without any water. If water be used the meat cannot be made any hotter than boiling water; and a much greater degree of heat is required to cook such meats as have tender fibre and are rich in juice and flavor, so that the outside surface may be quickly seared and prevent the escape of the juices.

Tough pieces, which require the solvent power of water, and which are lacking in flavor, are improved by the addition of a savory stuffing, or by seasoning the water with herbs and vegetables; also by first browning the meat in hot dripping. The flavor imparted by the partially confined heat of the oven is stronger than that of boiling.

Sometimes meat is steamed over boiling water until it is made very tender, then put in the oven to be browned and receive the flavor which can be obtained only by means of this dry heat.

Another way is to steam it in its own juices. This is called smothering, or pot roasting. The meat should be left whole for convenience in slicing and serving neatly, particularly if to be served cold. If cooked over the fire a little water should be put in the kettle to prevent burning, and be kept hot but not boiling. Some of the juices are drawn out into the water, and the steam from this heats and softens the meat. These juices make a rich and savory gravy.

A convenient way is to put the meat into a tightly covered jar, place it in a very moderate oven for one hour, or until some juice is drawn out, then increase the heat and cook a half hour for every pound of meat. There will be a large quantity of juice in the jar, which should be diluted with water, thickened, and used as a gravy. The meat may be cut in small pieces when the time for cooking is limited.

These are all savory and wholesome modes of cooking the cheaper parts of meat; and fresh meat cooked properly is equally palatable and far more nutritious than corned or salt meat, which forms too large a part of the diet of many people.

The fat of meat is a useful article of food, especially in winter. Every scrap of it, particularly of beef fat, should be used, and all that is not eaten with the meat may be clarified, or made pure and clear.

By heating the fat with water to prevent burning, or with thin slices of raw potato, the water evaporates and the steam carries off the odors or gases. The organic matters in the fat are decomposed or deposited as sediment and adhere to the sliced potato. Clarified fat or dripping answers for many purposes in cookery, - fry-ing, basting roast meat, greasing pans, and as shortening for bread, plain pastry, and various things.

Suggestion to the Teacher.

If it be difficult for pupils to locate the different cuts of meat by studying a diagram, let them imagine an ox as it looks in life, and then compare it with the human body, as that would look if men walked with hand3 as well as feet. The position of the bones of the legs, back, and ribs can be shown; also the large and small muscles, and the joints, cords, tendons, etc. Then from the meat which is to be used in the lesson explain its composition. Show the difference between tough and tender fibre, gristly, gelatinous portions, fat, bone, juice, etc., and tell briefly how the different parts are to be cooked. Serve the calf's heart for a lunch, and after tasting the beef and mutton, reserve them for the next class to use in warming over.

As meat varies, according to its age and feeding, in the tenderness of its fibre and the amount of connective tissue, gristle, tendon, etc., it is safer to allow at least an hour fur the boiling or stewing of any kind, whatever the shape or weight; then increase the time from two to five hours as per time-table.