Preface

The meaning of Horticulture as given by Noah Webster is the cultivation of a garden, or the art of cultivating gardens. But modern advancement has given the word a much broader ...

Chapter I. Seeds And Seed-Growth

Seeds are embryo plants capable of growing into new individual plants more or less varied from the parent plant. As the first stage of plant-life it should have the first attention of the beginner ...

2. Seed Variation of Cultivated Plants

The cultivated varieties of the fruits and ligneous plants are far more variable when grown from seed than those nearer to Nature. In many cases they are crosses or hybrids and for generations ...

3. Commercial Seeds

It has been said with much show of truth that the Americans are not gatherers of the seeds of native ligneous trees and plants, while in Europe seed-growing and seed-gathering is a business in ...

4. Seed-saving

In selecting seeds for growing fruit-tree stocks it is desirable to secure those from primitive or nearly primitive types and species. The abnormal development of the edible portion of fruits is ...

5. Seed-stratification

The practice known as stratification by gardeners is simply mixing thoroughly the seeds with sand in a box and burying outside on dry ground, with the top about four inches under the earth, where ...

6. Soaking and Scalding Seeds

Dry commercial seeds of the apple and pear are soaked at the North about twelve hours, just prior to a night of low temperature, during the latter part of winter. The water is then drained off, ...

7. Fall Planting of Seeds

Planting some of the bony-shelled seeds in autumn answers well the purpose of stratification if properly managed. If planted at proper depth for germination, they are apt to be thrown out by ...

8. Seed-testing

Seed-testing indoors is not wholly satisfactory, as the conditions are more favorable than in the soil of the open field or garden. The best test for the amateur or commercial planter is ...

9. Depth of Planting Seeds

As a rule, the depth of planting depends on the size of seeds. But this is not invariable. Some quite large seeds, such as those of the bean, castor-oil bean, and some of the nuts, send out thick, ...

10. Best Time to Plant

As previously stated, stratified seeds kept in open air or the cellar must be planted very early or they may sprout in the boxes. But aside from this the fruit-tree seeds germinate at a low ...

11. Seeds in Shallow Boxes, or "Flats."

What are known to propagators as flats are shallow boxes with sides four inches high and perforated bottoms. The size as to length and width is varied for different uses and ...

12. Seeds in the Hot-bed

Bottom heat, secured by manure in the heating stage, or by hot water or steam, is much used by professional gardeners, and to less extent by amateurs for starting subtropical plants, such as ...

13. Shaded Beds for Seed-planting

Some of our cultivated trees and plants, that under natural conditions drop their seeds in forest shade, seem to require the same protection when propagated in open exposure. This is specially ...

14. Retained Vitality of Seeds

Varied opinions have been given as to the duration of vitality of seeds of the cultivated plants. This largely comes from the varied modes of drying and storing of seeds. As an instance, onion and ...

Chapter II. Seed-Germination And Seedling-Growth

15. Seed-germination With an ordinary magnifyirig-glass the tiny plantlet is not difficult to discover compactly folded up within the seed. If we place seeds of ...

16. Some of the Modes of Boot-growth

As the hypocotyl, or first seed-growth, extends downward into the soil, rootlets start from its sides and rounded point. From the point the main or tap-root extends downward, and from the sides ...

17. How Seedling-roots Grow

The tree-seedling permitted to stand where the seed was planted extends the main or water-feeding roots downward, if the soil is favorable, to a depth of several feet. The writer has traced the ...

18. The Office of the Roots

The roots of trees and plants serve the purpose of holding the top erect and to supply water, with its dissolved elements, for sustaining growth of the tree or plant. The deep roots take up the ...

19. Root-protection

It may be said that Nature protects tree- and plant-roots by shading in summer and surface-protection in winter. Under clean culture the bare surface is heated abnormally between the rows of ...

20. Root-division

The common practice of growing trees and some shrubs and plants from root-cuttings well illustrates some of the varied peculiarities of root-structure. It may be said that all trees and plants ...

21. Roots as Modified by Variety of Top

The cultivated orchard fruits vary peculiarly in the manner of root-growth when grown on their own roots or grafted. With a given lot of apple-seedlings, if we graft enough for a nursery row of ...

Chapter III. Stem- And Top-Growth, Appendages, Circulation

22. Stem-growth After the seed is established by starting rootlets the upward-growing shoot, or plumule, starts growth and soon forms perfect leaves. The root-growth, ...

23. General Classes of Stems

Roots are annual, biennial, or perennial, depending on their length of life. In the same way the stem-growth is divided into two main classes or divisions, the herbaceous stems living only one ...

24. Heartwood and Sapwood

In the one-year-old seedling the stem is composed wholly of live or sap wood. But with increased age the older layers or rings of growth are buried by the newer ones. The newer layers with light ...

25. Proper Height of Fruit-tree Stems

The advice in the past has been to trim up nursery trees when planted in orchard high enough to work under the branches. At this time in all parts of the Union - even in California and the South - ...

26. Stem-protection

In California, in starting orchards of the citrus and other fruits, stem-protection, while the tree is getting some spread of top, is given by rived shakes or boards on the south side. In the ...

27. Proper Mode of Branching

It is usually the case that nursery trees as received for planting are not in proper shape for the orchard. Some slight changes can be made at time of setting out, but the main pruning should be ...

28. Leaf- and Fruit-buds

Buds that appear in the axil of the leaf are in some respects like seeds. Indeed same buds, such as those of the tiger lily, drop to the earth and germinate like seeds. The grape and some other ...

29. Adventitious and Lateral Euds

Buds usually form only at the nodes of the stem and at the axil of the leaves, but some species develop buds under certain conditions at any point on the stem or root. These that may develop ...

30. The Leaf

Most plants under culture develop true leaves or what Gray terms ''Leaves as foliage. In horticulture the mode of connection of the leaf with the branch and root, and its relative thickness ...

31. Sap and its Movements

The movement of water in cell-structure, transpiration in the leaf, and the downward current of assimilated food belongs to botany. But the work of the horticulturist soon shows the need of some ...

Chapter IV. The Flowers And Fruits

In the higher plants the flower is the expanded fruit-bud and is the organ of reproduction. A few plants under culture like the horseradish multiply rapidly by root extension, and nearly all ...

33. Inferior and Superior Flowers

In horticulture the flowers of the orchard fruits are divided into two classes, known as inferior and superior. The cherry and peach are superior in formation, as the fruit forms above ...

34. Monoecious and Dioecious Flowers

When the stamen-bearing and pistil-bearing flowers are on separate trees or plants they are classed as dioecious. Examples of this class are found in the date, box-elder, and buffalo-berry. Where ...

35. Perfect and Imperfect Flowers

Where the stamens and pistils are found in the same flower it is called perfect or hermaphrodite, as in most of our orchard fruits and garden plants. But when only one sex of these essential ...

36. Cross-pollination

Even when the flowers seem perfect in all respects they often in the cultivated fruits seem incapable of self-pollination. This is not confined to the individual flower or to the flowers of a ...

37. Nutrition of the Fruit-blossom

Growers of the strawberry now unite mainly in the belief that the flowers of the pistillate varieties are capable of enduring unharmed frosts and adverse weather conditions that destroy the germs ...

38. Long Blossoming Period

Varieties of our fruits differ materially in their blossoming habits. Some varieties expand all their flowers in a brief period. Others seem to have two sets of flowers. As an extreme example, ...

39. Possible Flower Production

To the true lover of horticulture there is a fascination in the work of systematic hand-pollination of a flower. As Lindley said many years ago: What increases the charm of the game is that ...

40. The Fruit and its Maturation

The botanist defines fruit as The ripened pericarp and attachments. This would hardly answer for a description of Grimes Golden apple, Seckel pear, Ponderosa tomato, or other products ...

41. Air-drainage

In all parts of the Union most of the orchard fruits bear more regularly, and mature their fruits most perfectly, on land higher than the adjacent sections at least in one direction. In California ...

42. Fruit Soils

Perhaps there is not a settled area in the United States where certain varieties and species of the fruits may not be grown with reasonable care. Even in the arid States the conditions of soils ...

43. Fruits as Modified by Climate

Heat and light during the period of ripening affect the ripening and perfect flavor of fruits. When American fruits are shown in Europe at expositions their bright coloring and flavor are ...

Chapter V. Modes And Principles Of Propagation

44. Some Preliminary Considerations As stated in (1. Seedling Variations) and (...

45. Root-grafting in Europe

Over a large part of Europe fruit-trees are found on their own roots. Sprouts and suckers of cherry, plum, prune, apple, pear, and other fruits are used for orchard-planting. In some noted centres ...

46. Some European Criticisms

Since the writer's visit to Europe many adverse opinions have been given by eminent horticulturists of Europe on modern root-grafting and stock-budding. As instances, F. W. Burbidge, a practical ...

47. Commercial Stocks

The real truth is that budding and grafting may give us as healthy and long-lived fruit-trees as can be grown on own roots. To illustrate: If we bud or graft a favorite variety of the plum on a ...

48. Propagation by Seeds

As what might be called the foundation of horticulture, the leading facts were given relative to the handling, care of, and planting of seeds in the first chapter. In this connection it is only ...

49. Propagation by Suckers

About all the orchard fruits of the temperate zone throw up suckers from the surface-roots, especially if wounded by the plow or spade. Popularly they are called sprouts, but these more properly ...

50. Propagation by Root-cuttings

All fruits, ornamental trees, and shrubs that will sprout from the surface-roots naturally or by wounding with plow or spade will grow from root-cuttings. Indeed, some trees not known to sucker, ...

51. Rooting Sprouts by Mounding

If the sprouts or side shoots of cultivated trees or shrubs are cut back quite low in early spring an additional number of succulent sprouts will spring up. If these are carefully mounded the ...

52. Summer Layering

This is a method of division effected by bending down and covering shoots at about the completion of spring growth. Usually summer layering is confined to the shoots of the same season's growth. ...

53. Spring Layering

In spring layering a whole cane of grape or limb of a shrub is laid down in a trench as shown in Fig. 20. After pegging down in the trench the limb or vine is left exposed to the air until the ...

Chapter VI. Propagation By Inarching And From Woody And Immature Cuttings

54. Propagating by Inarching This is a process of layering by uniting a limb or branch of one tree or shrub with that of another of the same species or a nearly allied ...

55. Long Scion Inarching

Like inarching, this will only be practised on the home grounds. Fig. 23 gives the method of doing the work. A scion eighteen to twenty inches long is used with one end stuck into the soil and ...

56. Propagating by Ripe "Wood-cuttings

The successful growing of cuttings of woody trees and shrubs in the open ground is much varied by climatic conditions. In the moister air and warmer soil of the Southern States and in south Europe ...

58. Fall-planting of Cuttings

The cuttings are kept moist until planted. In fall-planting of cuttings of hardy trees and shrubs it is found best to plant on a shouldered trench, as shown at Fig. 15. In filling in, when the ...

60. Spring-planted Cuttings

If grape-cuttings are planted in the fall, at time of pruning of the vines, a good stand at the North is rarely secured on account of rotting of the buds in contact with the cold earth. In the ...

61. Cuttings Kept in the Cellar

A few valuable shrubs will not bear propagation in the ordinary ways. One of these is the Amur Tamarix. The successful practice has been to make the cuttings late in fall, tie in bundles with the ...

63. Controlling Heat and Moisture

Various plans have been devised to secure the needed conditions as to light, moisture, heat, and transpiration. In all of them nearly, glass is the covering used, as it is cheap and best ...

64. Why Cuttings Need Bottom Heat

In section (60. Spring-planted Cuttings) the reasons why grape and other cuttings are put in solar hot-bed in inverted position are given. If most ...

65. The Hot-bed

The use of the hot-bed for growing seeds of subtropical and other seeds is noted in prior section (12. Seeds in the Hot-bed). At the home place, and in ...

66. Preparing and Setting Green Cuttings

Cuttings of most herbaceous house and greenhouse plants are made from the soft growing tips that will snap off when bent at the point where roots are to form. While a bud at the base is no ...

67. Need of Buds in Plant Division

The beginner in this interesting work will find some curious confirmation of the theory that leaf buds are essential to root and top growth. As an example, a leaf of some plants will root in the ...

68. Division of Perennials, Tubers, and Rootstalks

About all the perennial flowers and garden plants, such as perennial phlox, hemerocallis, funkia, fraxinella, and pie-plant, may be divided by separations, including a bud at the top of each ...

Chapter VII. Propagation By Budding And Grafting

69. Propagation by Budding In some cases the leaf-bud is so perfectly developed that it drops to the ground, where, if the conditions are favorable, it takes root and ...

71. Some Native Stocks that Should be Used

In all parts of Europe primitive wild fruit-tree species are found nearly allied to the cultivated varieties, and their seeds are utilized for stock-growing as found in different localities. In ...

73. How to Cut and Insert Buds

What is known as the T or shield bud is used almost exclusively in the United States and Canada. The buds, as shown in Fig. 37, are cut from the new wood of the same season's growth. The shoots ...

74. Budding the Same Season the Pits are Planted

The pits of our native plums are often planted very early in spring quite thinly, given good cultivation, and are budded quite late the same season. These young, excitable seedlings continue ...

76. June Budding

What is known as June budding at the South gives salable trees of the peach and other trees the first-season from three to five feet in height. The budding is done about the middle to the last of ...

77. Ring-budding

This old European mode of budding is coming into use in this country in changing the top of mulberry, fig, walnut, chestnut, and oak. A ring of bark two inches long is peeled from the stock and ...

79. Limits of Grafting

As in budding, the possible limits are not yet known. As a rule, close botanic affinity must exist between stock and scion, such as apple upon apple, pear upon pear, and plum upon plum, etc. But ...

80. Cutting and Packing Scions

The new wood of the preceding year's growth is usually used in grafting. In mild climate the new wood or scions are cut as used, or at least before starting of the buds. But at the North, ...

81. Taking Up and Packing the Stocks

If grown at home the apple, plum, cherry, and other stocks should stand in nursery as late in autumn as possible, and after taking up they should be heeled in on dry ground outside, with some ...

82. Short Roots and Long Scions

Much has been said and written during recent years in regard to piece roots and whole roots in apple-root grafting. As noted (47. Commercial Stocks) many of ...

83. Grafting-wax for Varied Uses

The most useful grafting-wax for varied uses is known as French mastic or Lefort's liquid grafting-wax. For a long period the composition of this wax was a trade secret in Europe and ...

84. Root-grafting the Apple

The now common plan of root-grafting the apple is by the method known as tongue- or whip-grafting. It is easier and simpler than other methods, and no waxing seems needed. If corresponding sloping ...

85. Packing Away the Grafts

While grafting and winding keep the grafts as finished under a damp cloth. In packing set the box on end as shown in Fig. 43. A layer of sandy earth is followed by a layer of grafts until the box ...

86. Crown-grafting Pear, Plum, and Cherry

These fruits are not as certain to unite as the apple in grafting unless additional care is taken. The common plan of indoor grafting is by wedge and side-uniting, as shown in Fig. 44. This plan ...

87. Trenching for Graft-planting

The long grafts of the pear and stone fruits are difficult to plant firmly at proper depth without trenching with a nursery subsoil plough made for this use. Fig. 46 shows the construetion of ...

88. Top-grafting

In all climates grafting in the top is often an advantage. Usually the gain comes from working a highly developed variety of fruit, rather delicate and tender in tree, on robust, deeply rooted ...

91. Top-grafting Cherry and Plum

Comparatively little has been done as yet in top-working the stone fruits. But Western experience with the cherry leads to the belief that it will pay commercially to top-work the cherry and plum ...

93. Scions to Save Girdled Trees

Young orchard trees are often girdled in winter by mice, rabbits, and sometimes by sheep. If sawed off below the injury they usually fail to grow from the stub, as buds are slow in development at ...

94. Bark-grafting

This grafting is done after the bark begins to peel in early spring when the leaves begin to start. The stock is cut back as in cleft-grafting, but no cleft is made. The bark is slit downward in ...

95. Soft-tissue Grafting

Wedge- and cleft-grafting are used in many instructive ways with tubers that have lost their crown-buds, and in grafting one species of cactus on another, and in grafting very many greenhouse- and ...

Chapter VIII. Some Leading Principles Of Fruit-Growing And Development

96. Selection of Soil and Subsoil Where possible the location of the home grounds, orchard, and nursery should be determined largely by the character of the soil and ...

99. Orchard Protection

This also is a question for local study. Over large sections of the country a tree shelter on the south is desirable, as the violent winds come from that quarter at the period when orchard fruits ...

100. Retarding the Blossoming Period

The belief is quite general that quite heavy mulching of the roots of orchard trees when the ground is deeply frozen will retard the blossoming period. Repeated trials at the experiment stations ...

101. Washing of Orchard Soils

As each year the selection of hill and slope land for orchard sites is becoming more general, the washing and gullying of such soils under cultivation becomes an important subject for ...

102. Variety Modifications

A common popular belief is that a given variety of the cultivated fruits does not vary in tree or fruit. But the close observer will find in every orchard-row planted with a given nursery variety ...

104. Advance Planning of the Work

Professor Bailey says in his book on Plant Breeding: It is necessary, on account of the indefiniteness of the term 'variety, to remember that only varieties true to seed, or ...

105. Nearly Allied Crossing

In crossing the orchard fruits the work has not proven as uncertain in results as most persons suspect. The remarkable results achieved by Luther Burbank, of California, have by many been ...

106. Violent Crosses

All experience favors the belief that such violent crosses as wheat with rye, raspberry with blackberry, peach with plum, or our native wild crab with the cultivated apples, will not give results ...

107. Gathering Pollen in Advance

Some American authors advise the use of pollen gathered as needed. In practice this is not easily possible, as the pollen is scattered about as soon as the anthers burst. A more certain plan is to ...

108. Preparing and Pollinating Flowers

When fruit-tree flowers are fully expanded, or even one half of them have opened, it is not easy to prevent self-pollination. It is far safest to begin the work when the first flowers are nearly ...

109. When and How to Apply Pollen

When partly developed flowers are emasculated the stigmas are not ready for the pollen in less than three days, as a rule, even when the weather is clear and warm. If cloudy and cool they may not ...

110. Speedy Testing of the Crosses and Hybrids

The small lots of seeds developed by crossing are usually kept in flower-pots mixed with sand (5. Seed-stratification). When the seedlings produced are one ...

Chapter IX. Transplanting Fruits And Ornamentals

111. Transplanting When trees or shrubs are transplanted from the nursery or forest to the orchard or lawn, the feeding-roots and rootlets are largely left in the ...

114. Double Planting of Orchards

The wide spaces - thirty to forty feet - between the small trees of apple or pear have tempted many to plant peaches, dwarf pears, or plums and cherries between the trees both ways, with the ...

117. Fall- or Spring-planting

In all parts where severe freezing occurs in winter it is a gain to dig the holes in the fall. The dirt thrown out is fined and mellowed by frost and the sides and bottom of the holes are softened ...

119. Securing and Caring for Nursery Trees

If a local nursery is near it is usually best to visit it and secure the varieties doing best in the vicinity. If they must be shipped in, take the same care in selecting varieties. In both cases ...

120. Proper Depth to Plant Trees

The proper depth to plant fruit trees is variable, dependent upon climatic conditions. Where there is no liability to root-killing it is not desirable to plant trees and shrubs more than ...

121. Pruning Tops and Boots Before Transplanting or Heeling In

The young nursery tree usually needs some pruning of the top prior to planting with a view to giving proper height of stem and shape of top. It is now generally believed by experienced planters ...

123. Planting and Watering Trees

If the soil is well firmed over the wet roots (117. Fall- or Spring-planting) and the soil is moist but not wet, it is rarely necessary to pour in ...

124. Transplanting Evergreens

Evergreens taken up in the near vicinity and the roots kept moist should bo planted at once. But experience has shown that it is safest to take them up and transplant when the buds begin to swell. ...

Chapter X. Orchard Management

125. Culture After Planting As soon as orchard trees are planted the ground should be cultivated to conserve moisture. Even if no weeds start keep the surface earth ...

126. Shading of Orchard Soils

During recent years the continued culture of orchards has been advocated in California and in all fruit-growing centres. But a change in belief is now apparent in all sections. In section (...

127. Cover-crops and Blight

Beyond all doubt what is known as fire-blight of the apple, pear, and quince is caused by bacterial growth in the cell-structure of the leaf, blossom, and outer wood. Yet long-continued ...

129. Protection from Mice and Rabbits

In the United States and Canada field-mice are found in all parts that are liable to girdle the stems of young orchard trees. A certain preventive is to throw a small mound of earth around the ...

132. Orchard Fertilization

In the Eastern and Southern States, and on the west coast, the commercial fertilizers have been used freely in with continued culture. The result has been that the expression Fertilizer sick&...

133. Low Hedge for Shelter-belt

Stock should in all cases be excluded from the orchard. The low hedge is more attractive than the fence, and near towns is not so easy to climb. Another good reason for its use is that a low wind-...

134. Marketing Summer-ripening Fruit

Properly managed, there is profit in most localities in growing summer-ripening apples and pears. In picking the stems should be retained, as it favors their keeping, and they should be marketed ...

135. Picking and Handling Fall and Early Winter Apples

Many of the fall and early winter apples will bear picking when the seeds are first browned and before they are fully colored. The Fameuse, Wealthy, Alexander, Jonathan, Grimes Golden, and many of ...

137. Earth-covered Cave for Apple Storage

Earth-covered caves are used often by nurserymen to store grapevines and fruit trees and for storing grafts of the orchard fruits (85. Packing Away the ...

138. Tile-draining of Orchards

It often happens that ridge land with good air-drainage has too stiff a soil and subsoil for best success in orcharding. If the soil seems too wet, or alternately too wet or too dry, tile-drainage ...

139. Fruit-growing Neighborhoods

The amateur or commercial fruit-grower who finds that any one of the orchard or small fruits succeeds unusually well in his vicinity should encourage his neighbors to increase their plantings. ...

Chapter XI. Pruning Of Trees And Ornamentals

140. Need of Pruning Lindley said many years ago: If well directed, priming is one of the most useful, and if ill directed it is among the most mischievous, ...

143. Pruning Young Apple and Pear Orchards

Only a few years ago the advice given in the fruit books of Europe and America was to thin out the tops of bearing fruit trees to let in the sun. Charles Downing was an innovator when he wrote in ...

145. Training Dwarf Apple- and Pear-trees

The use of dwarf apple- and pear-trees is becoming more general in nearly all parts of the States. Apple on Paradise roots and pear on quince are now popular for amateur use, and even market, in ...

148. Pruning the Cherry and Plum

The Morello varieties of the cherry form rather open, round-headed tops that need comparatively little pruning if a well-defined stem and top are established when first set in orchard. As a rule, ...

149. Pruning the Peach and Apricot

In peach- and prune-growing centres from California east to the Atlantic the commercial pruning is often excessive, literally cutting wagon-loads of brush to the acre. This severe thinning and ...

150. Pruning the Orange

This semi-tropical fruit is included mainly to sustain the principle now so generally favored of growing thick tops in hot, relatively dry climates. Professor Wickson, of California, says: ...

152. Pruning and Shaping Shrubs

All our ornamental shrubs of the lawn and park may be divided into three general classes as to habits of flowering and pruning : (1. Seedling ...

154. Pruning Ornamental Hedges and Screens

The lawn hedge on the border or beside a walk must show uniformity of outline and thickness of base. The only durable forms are those with broad base and an approach to conical form, as shown in ...

Chapter XII. Spraying For Insects And Fungi

155. Evolution of Spraying In the sense in which the word spraying is now used we may say that it is an operation of our day. In commercial fruit-growing centres of ...

156. Spraying for Codling-moth

Arsenite of Lime Solutions. - John N. Dixon in 1877 and 1878 used a weak solution of white arsenic (155. Evolution of Spraying). ...

157. Curculio of the Apple, Pear, Plum, Apricot, Cherry, and Peach

The species of the curculio that penetrate the fruit of the apple, pear, plum, apricot, cherry, and peach are not identical, but their methods of working and treatment are nearly the same. The ...

158. Spraying for the Bark and Leaf Aphis.

Kerosene Emulsion. - The scale insects, plant-lice, and the true bugs (Heteroptera) that suck their food from the leaves or young growth of plants and trees cannot be controlled by spraying with ...

159. Leaf Aphis of Apple, Plum, Cherry, and Peach

These are not identical species, but their habits are about the same. With the apple the winged lice lay their eggs around the buds of the new growth, which hatch into green lice as the buds begin ...

160. Spraying for Scale Aphis

This is a common trouble with the apple orchards in about all parts of the Union. During the summer little can be done, as the insect is well housed under its scale. In the spring the scales cover ...

161. Some Miscellaneous Insects

The amateur and beginner in fruit-growing and home-making should keep in mind the fact that about all our injurious insects may be divided into two general classes. (...

162. Spraying for Fungous Diseases

The Bordeaux Mixture. - It is an interesting fact pertaining to the now general use of the sulphate of copper for controlling the fungous diseases of cultivated plants that its value for such use ...

163. Apple and Pear Scab

Excepting perhaps the codling-moth the scab is now the most destructive and widely spread drawback to apple culture and to a less extent of the pear. It is now so general in commercial apple-...

164. Brown Rot of the Stone Fruits

In the dry air of the prairie States the brown rot or fruit rot of the stone fruits is mainly confined to the foreign plums and the peach. It rarely attacks the native varieties of the plum, and ...

165. Fungi of the Grape and Small Fruits

The different forms of rot of the grape, especially in the South, such as black rot, brown rot, and ripe or bitter rot, are controlled by a similar system of spraying. The usual plan has been to ...

Chapter XIII. The Apple, Pear, And Quince

166. Origin of the Cultivated Apples From prehistoric times the apple has been a leading cultivated fruit of the temperate zones. Poets and writers have sounded its ...

167. Our Native Crab apple

The most valuable native species of the United States is Pyrus coronaria. As found in the prairie States it differs some in habit of tree and flower and fruit, and Professor Bailey has given it as ...

168. Dwarf Apple-trees

In the growing of handsome and good summer and fall apples in private gardens dwarfing on paradise or other dwarf stocks is often an advantage, as they can be grown along drives or even walks. ...

169. Propagation of the Apple

Within recent years the growing of apple-seedlings has become a business carried on by specialists. In the prairie States for many years they have been grown as a leading crop for sale to ...

171. Varied Season and Behavior of Apple Varieties

As grown on varied soils, altitudes, and with varied heat and length of summer, varieties vary exceedingly in season of ripening, coloring, and distinctive form and markings. As to season, ...

The Pear

172. History and Some of the Pear Races High-grade pears for dessert use may be.said to be a modern development in west Europe and the United States. Pears were ...

173. Dwarf Pears

When dwarfed by budding on the Angers quince, given varieties of the pear bear earlier and the small trees can be admitted on smaller grounds, as with the dwarf apple, and it is easier to thin the ...

174. Propagation of the Pear

Nearly all the pear-seedlings used in this country for propagation are imported or grown from imported seed. In either case the seed used is mainly saved in the perry-producing sections of west ...

The Quince

177. Origin and Races The quince is an ancient fruit that has been changed in size and quality less than any one of our orchard fruits by modern selection, crossing, ...

Chapter XIV. The Cherry, Plum, Prune, Apricot, And Peach. The Cherry

179. History and Classification This refreshing and wholesome fruit is by no means a modern development. In the fourteenth century we are told by Marco Polo and ...

180. Propagation of the Cherry

The selection of stocks and propagation by budding and grafting are given in Chapter VII (Propagation By Budding And Grafting) ...

The Plum

182. Its History and Classification The plum is also one of the anciently cultivated fruits of central Asia. Regel says in the Gartenflora, published in Berlin: ...

183. The Prune

Commercially, all the domestica varieties of the plum that can be cured without removing the stone, and that will keep well after drying, are classed as prunes in the dried form. But the popular ...

184. Apricot

The apricot seems closely related to the plum, as it buds and grafts readily and makes a good union of wood on stocks of some of the plum species, especially the Americana. But it also unites well ...

185. The Peach

To an extent not realized with anv of the stone fruits, the peach is now a commercial fruit in every village, city, and mining and lumber camp of the Union. Yet the immense supply comes mainly ...

186. Propagation of Plum, Prune, Apricot, and Peach

These fruits are so nearly allied that they can be all budded or grafted on the same stock. And commercially the peach is often worked on Ohicasa-plum stocks and the plum on peach. The apricot is ...

187. The Nectarine

The fine fruit was once supposed to be a good species, as it seems to have been an anciently cultivated fruit. At the great commercial fair at Nishni Novgorod we saw tons of the fruit in fresh and ...

188. Laying down Peach and Apricot

In the cold North, even in the trying climate of Minnesota, the peach is grown by laying down for winter protection. In north Iowa many have secured good crops by dividing the roots in planting so ...

189. Orchard Management

The stone fruits are superior (33. Inferior and Superior Flowers) and more liable to injury of blossoms by late frosts than the apple or pear. ...

190. Thinning the Fruit

As a general rule amateurs and home-growers of the domestica plums and peaches never think of thinning the fruit, even in seasons when the trees are carrying double loads. The commercial growers ...

Chapter XV. Some Subtropical Orchard Fruits

191. The Orange This is one of the most ancient fruits and one that has been most modified by culture, selection, and natural crossing. De Candolle says : ...

192. Orange Propagation

The writer has had no experience in propagation except in the way of propagating the Otaheite variety as a house plant. But the results obtained by varied plans of propagation have been studied in ...

193. Top-working the Orange

In orange-growing centres in this country the first plantings of the gulf region and west coast were mainly seedlings, and seedlings are yet set in orchard with view to top-working. In top-working ...

194. Orange Cultivation

During the early period of American orange-growing in a commercial way the advice was given to keep up clean cultivation through the season and to rely mainly on commercial fertilizers. The ...

195. Pruning the Orange

The most approved plan of pruning in European and American orange-growing centres is to form a low head and compact top when.the tree is young and up to the first stages of bearing. In ...

196. The Lemon

This is closely related to the orange, as is indicated in horticultural practice in the choice of stocks. The lemon is often budded on the orange and the orange on the lemon on an extensive ...

198. The Pomelo or Grape-fruit

This species (Citrus decumana) is quite closely allied to the orange, and it is the most ornamental tree of the genus when laden with its large golden fruit. Its flowers are large, white, and very ...

199. The Kumquat

This is a dwarf species of the citrus family. As grown on Citrus trifoliata in Florida it makes a small, handsome bush. It is a heavy bearer of golden yellow fruit not often more than one inch in ...

200. The Lime

The sour lime (Citrus medica, variety acida) is much grown in a home way, as its acid fruits are used to the almost total exclusion of the lemon in frostless climes for cooling drinks and for all ...

201. The Mandarin (Citrus nobilis)

This peculiar member of the citrus family seems to be a distinct species. It is a large shrub or small tree with dense foliage and small lanceolate leaves. The fruit is small, bright yellow, with ...

Chapter XVI. Some Other Tropical And Subtropical Fruits. The Olive

202. The Olive Naturally the olive is a dry-climate fruit; that is, it needs a dry air as well as a relatively dry soil. Dr. Henry Lansdell says in his Russian ...

205. The Fig

This ancient fruit, now found in about all subtropical climates, also seems to have originated in central Asia, and to this day a large part of the commercial dried figs found in every civilized ...

208. The Date Palm

This is truly a child of the desert, and its delicious fruit only seems to reach perfection in climates with desert-like conditions as to heat and aridity of air. The tree is grown in California, ...

211. The Banana

This valuable fruit of tropical climates is grown in considerable quantity in southern Florida, as it will grow nearer the sea and on lower land than the citrus fruits. It is also grown for ...

212. The Pineapple

This delicious tropical fruit is native to Brazil, Mexico, and probably some of the West India islands. But doubts of this fact have arisen on account of the wide distribution of the plant to ...

214. The Loquat

This is a combined ornamental and fruit-bearing shrub or small tree native to Japan and China. It has long wide, evergreen leaves decidedly ornamental, and terminal panicles of white and very ...

216. The Pomegranate

This ancient fruit grows wild in Persia and over central Asia, and some cultivated varieties grow as far north as Samarcand, where the winters are quite severe. In Bible history it was one of the ...

217. The Persimmon

What is known as persimmon or date plum may be said to be a new fruit in west Europe and the United States. For this reason probably De Candolle in his Origin of Cultivated Fruits does ...

218. The Native Persimmons

The native species (Diospyros Virginiana) is indigenous to all parts of the Southern States known to the writer, and along the streams it, in some cases, extends north to the 40th parallel. The ...

220. The Guava

This is often called the apple of tropical climates. The fruits of the best tropical varieties are often as large as a good-sized apple or pear. It is an immense bearer. The fruit ripens from ...

221. The Tomato

This South American fruit has in recent years been developed in size and quality of fruit to an extent that can never be equalled with the tree fruits. Bailey says: There is every reason to ...

222. The Melons

The history of the muskmelon and watermelon is obscure. It is probable that De Candolle is right in his conclusion that they were originally native to Africa, both north and south of the equator. ...

Chapter XVII. The American Grapes

223. Grape History and Development Except on favored soils on the west coast our grapes may be said to be truly American. In some cases the varieties grown east of ...

224. Grape-propagation

The grape is propagated easily from seeds, layers, cuttings of the new wood, and by grafting. It is only grown from seeds where attempts are made to develop new varieties by crossing or selection (...

225. Growing Vines from Single Buds

The growing of vines from single buds is mainly practised with new varieties where rapid propagation is desired with a limited stock of new wood. It is also practised with such varieties as ...

226. Grafting the Grape

Grafting the grape is mainly confined during recent years to the parts of Europe and California where the varieties of the European species (Vitis vinifera) are grown. The destruction of vineyards ...

228. Best Soil and Location for Vineyard

Much has been written on this topic that after experience has shown had little foundation. About three leading facts deserve the attention of commercial planters : (...

229. Grape Varieties for Varied Sections

It is not easy to select any one variety adapted to all parts of the Union. Such dessert varieties as Concord, Worden, Moore's Early, and Cottage as yet are the cosmopolitan varieties starred or ...

230. Distance Apart and Grape Planting

It is not easy to formulate rules in regard to distance apart of vines in plantation. Those familiar with our native varieties know that the Delaware with its relatively short growth will not ...

231. Varied Modes of Vineyard Training

Under natural conditions the wild vine climbs to the top of forest-trees and spreads out laterally in the tops, where it bears fruit exposed to the sun and air. While the vine is climbing upward ...

233. Diagonal Vine Training Plan

In the prairie States, and in other extended areas, a simple renewal system is practised that is only a variation of the system generally practised in the Chautauqua district of New York. The ...

234. The High Renewal Vine System

In relatively mild climates where winter protection is not essential, such as western New York, the river bluffs of Missouri, and in sections of the South, a modified system of high renewal ...

235. The Pacific Slope Vine System

Fifteen years ago when the writer made his first study of the fruits of the west coast, nearly all the vineyards of the raisin, wine, and table grapes of the vinifera class were grown on the self-...

236. Other Systems of Pruning

The fan renewal system adopted in parts of the Union is much like the diagonal-training plan of the prairie States, except that in this system the canes are trained in both directions on the wire, ...

237. Orchard Fruit Cultivation and Manuring

Whatever may be said of continued culture of the orchard fruits, there can be no difference of opinion as to the need of continued culture of the grape. However excellent a variety may be, the ...

238. Need of Humus in Cultivated Soils

In speaking of soil selection (228. Best Soil and Location for Vineyard) the need of fertilizing soils after several crops have been ...

239. Shading Vineyard Soils

It is stated above that cover-crops cannot be used in vineyards. This is true in practice, as the shading of the soil by growing crops is in the way of needed summer care and it favors rot and ...

Chapter XVIII. The Raspberry And Blackberry

240. The Raspberry: Origin of American Varieties The raspberry has been cultivated as a fruit over Europe and Asia during the historic period and even back to the ...

242. The Black-cap Family (Rubus occidentalis)

A distinguishing characteristic of this class is that it does not sprout from the roots, but is propagated from the tips of the young canes. As found native in nearly all parts of the ...

244. The Purple-cane Varieties

This is an interesting and valuable assemblance of varieties which has been classed as a true species, Rubus neglectus. It appears to be intermediate in character between the black caps and the ...

245. American Red Varieties (Rubus strigosus)

The wild red raspberry of the United States is widely distributed and its fruit, as found wild, often approaches closely in quality the European red species (Rubus idus). As it seems to have ...

247. Pruning the Raspberry

The first year after planting not more than two shoots should be allowed to grow, and for field culture without stakes these should be pinched back when one foot in height to start lateral ...

249. Raspberry Winter Protection

The usual way given in our American fruit-books to lay down the raspberry and blackberry, is to commence at one end of the row and lay down the canes all in one direction in the line of the row. ...

250. Staking Raspberries and Distance Apart

On rich ground the black caps and purple-cane varieties, and also the reds grown, as they should be, in stools, should be staked or supported on both sides by wires on low stakes. Stakes, if kept ...

251. The American Blackberries

It is beyond doubt true that we have in the United States the largest and best native wild blackberries of the north temperate zone and probably of the world. The cultivated varieties are all ...

253. The Dewberry

This vine-like species naturally trails on the ground. Some of the modern varieties, such as Lucretia and Windom, bear large fruit, softer in texture than most blackberries, and they are now found ...

Chapter XIX. The Strawberry And Its Culture

254. Some Historical Notes Without much doubt the first settlers on the Atlantic coast found larger and better wild strawberries than were at that time under ...

255. Staminate and Pistillate Strawberry Varieties

All botanists have described the strawberry as perfect in flower or bi-sexual. But our cultivated varieties are now classed as staminate and pistillate or pistillate and perfect. Without doubt ...

256. Setting Out and Care of the Strawberry Plants

In the Northern States fall-plowing best fits the soil for spring-planting. The soil is fined by the winter frosts and the chance of injury of the plants by cut-worms is much lessened. In the ...

257. The Two-year System of Strawberry Cropping

We have much talk in books and papers about the best methods of renewing old plantations. But the experience of growers each year strengthens the belief that more than two crops from the same ...

260. The Strawberry Under Glass

Those who have had experience know that no cultivated fruit will grow under glass with as little care and expense, and fruit as bountifully, as some varieties of the strawberry. The low structure ...

Chapter XX. The Currant And Gooseberry

262. The Red and White Currants Although we have many varieties of the cultivated currants in Europe and America, all except what are known as black currants belong ...

266. The Black Currant

The black currant (Ribes nigrum) has long been a favorite culinary fruit in most parts of Europe, but as yet it is not much grown in the United States. But in many neighborhoods, settled by ...

267. Golden Currant

This native fruit (Ribes aureum) of the West has been too much neglected. As found in its native haunts it varies in size of fruit, and quality and habits of regular bearing, as widely as our ...

268. The Gooseberry

In all parts of western and eastern Europe a number of varieties are cultivated, larger in size but not better in quality than our selected American varieties As yet the eastern European varieties ...

Chapter XXI. Promising Wild Fruits Worthy Of Some Attention

272. The Dwarf Juneberry The dwarf Juneberry, shad-bush, or service-berry (Amelanchier alnifolia), has become quite popular where locally grown. In some cases in Iowa ...

274. The Buffalo-berry

As a combined ornamental and fruit-bearing shrub, the buffalo-berry (Shepherdia argentea) deserves more attention than it has yet received. It is native to the bluffs of the upper Missouri and ...

275. The Barberry

Several of the species and varieties of the barberry have long been used in Europe, Asia, and to some extent in America for combined use for ornamental planting, hedges, and varied uses of the ...

276. Goumi (Eleagnus longipes)

This quite-near relative of our buffalo-berry was introduced from Japan. It is a bush in habit with reddish-brown branches and handsome foliage with peculiar star like centres above and brown ...

277. The Huckleberry

The huckleberry is the most widely distributed wild fruit of the Northern and Southern States. In nearly all parts of the Union it is gathered for local use and sent to distant markets. In its ...

278. The Sand Cherry

During the past fifteen years the writer has given considerable attention to the sand cherry, as growing wild in the Black Hills, Wyoming, eastern Colorado, northern Nebraska, and in various ...

279. The Tree Cranberry

Under this name the high-bush cranberry (Viburnum opulus) is propagated as a combined ornamental and fruit-bearing shrub. It is in no sense a cranberry, but is nearly allied to the cultivated ...

280. The Cranberry

Although this widely known American fruit has long been commercial and found in the market of about every city, village, and mining and lumber camp of the Union, it may be said that it is a wild ...

Chapter XXII. Some Leading Nut Trees

281. Advance of Nut-growing In Europe and Asia nut culture is nearly as ancient as the cultivation of the edible fruits, and by selection and culture the native ...

282. The Almond

This near relative of the peach has handsome peach-like blossoms, and the nut is botanically the pit of the fruit. But the thin, hard, fleshy part is not edible and splits open at maturity, ...

283. The English or Persian Walnut

In Europe the commercial varieties of Asiatic walnut (Juglans regia) are referred to simply as walnuts. But in the United States they are called English walnuts or Madeira nuts. The varieties from ...

284. Walnut Propagation

The belief has been quite general in this country that budding or grafting the nut trees has proven more uncertain and difficult than the grafting of the stone fruits. But where thrifty young ...

286. Black Walnut

The native black walnut (Juglans nigra) has a wide distribution in the Northern States. It is one of our largest trees and its lumber is so valuable for gun-stocks, furniture, and other uses, that ...

288. The Butternut

The American butternut (Juglans cinerea) is also a valuable lumber tree. The wood has been used for palace-car finishing and other work requiring a high polish, and the large trees are becoming ...

289. The Hickory-nut

Of the native species of the hickory found in the United States, the pecan (Hicoria pecan) stands first at present in commercial value; the little shellbark (H. ovata) stands second; and the big ...

290. Pecan Propagation

This valuable nut has been thus far mainly grown from the nuts. But it has been found that the nuts from a given tree bearing nuts that will bring forty cents per pound will not reproduce the ...

291. The Chestnut

Select varieties of the American sweet chestnut (Castanea Americana) are the best in quality that the writer has tested in Europe, Asia, or America, but the varieties of Japan are much larger and ...

293. The Filbert

The filbert is grown commercially over a large part of Europe and Asia, and the nuts are found for sale in about every grocery and fruit-store. Tons of the nuts are annually shipped to the United ...

294. The Hazel-nut

This is found native in about all parts of the Union, in timber openings and borders where the soil is shaded and where the leaf-mould deposits of years have not been disturbed. Some of the ...

296. Cocoanut

The cocoanut palm is one of the most peculiar economic trees of the earth. Floating in ocean water for months does not impair the vitality of the nut, and if it lands on a tropical or subtropical ...

298. Brazil-nut

This tropical nut is also included, as it thrives well in Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Cuba. It is not hardy anywhere in the United States, and the commercial supply comes mainly from Brazil ...

Chapter XXIII. Planning And Planting The Home Grounds

299. American Rural and Suburban Homes Among the nations of the world the United States is alone in its system of rural and suburban homes. The farmer, as soon as ...

302. Where to Plant Trees and Shrubs

The location of tree and shrub groups depends largely upon the shape of the grounds, and no two places may be exactly the same in expression when the work is finished. As stated, the first ...

303. Planning and Planting More Extended Grounds

In improving larger park-like grounds with varied hill and valley, and possibilities in the way of natural or artificial water views, it is always advisable to employ an experienced landscape ...

304. Improving Old Places

It often happens that large and small places have trees, shrubs, and hedges when purchased, or when the decision is reached to attempt a change for the better. In planning for a change in the ...

305. Transplanting Trees and Shrubs

Chapter IX (Transplanting Fruits And Ornamentals) of this volume gives some of the essentials of transplanting of fruits and ...

Chapter XXIV. Some Of The Leading Shade, Lawn, And Park Trees

307. Adapting Trees to Soil and Climate The nursery-catalogues of the Eastern, Southern, and West coast States give lists of the leading trees, shrubs, and flowers, ...

308. Sugar or Rock Maple

This is a popular shade, park, and lawn tree over a large part of the Union, with proper selection of varieties. The sugar maple (Acer saccharinum, Waugh; A. saccharum, Marsh) does well east of ...

309. Norway Maple (Acer platanoides)

This, as represented by its many varieties, is also variable in hardiness and adaptation to our varied soils and climates. The nursery varieties are all desirable for ornament in the East and ...

310. The Dwarf Oriental Maples

The Japan maples (Acer palmatum) listed in catalogues are peculiarly beautiful as represented by a dozen or more varieties grown in Eastern nurseries. They do well in deep, warm soil, sheltered ...

311. Box Elder (Acer negundo)

This tree is discarded by Maynard, who says: It soon takes an irregular form, is easily broken by wind and ice, and is rather short-lived. As found native in the Northwest this is not ...

312. The Silver and Red Maples

The soft or silver maple (Acer dasycarpum, Erhr; A. saccharinum, Linn) is much used in the East and Southeast. The Western type is a clean, thrifty tree when planted, but has lost in popular favor,...

314. The Elms

The white elm (Ulmus Americana) is one of the grandest trees of the temperate zones for street and avenue planting, and it should have a place in parks and on large lawns. Like all oar widely ...

315. The Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)

This also has been a neglected tree by propagators and planters. As found native in the prairie Stabes, it forms a round-topped tree of rapid growth, with exceedingly varied shade of foliage on ...

316. The Plane-tree (Platanus occidentalis)

This has for many years been a popular shade and park tree over the north temperate zone of both continents. As an avenue tree in large parks and private places, it has been used with happy effect ...

317. The Basswood or Linden

Over west and east Europe the linden (Tilia Europea) is a favorite tree for avenues, streets, shade, and in park grouping. But this European species in the States has been troubled with borers, ...

318. The Honey Locust

As a park tree this is gaining ground rapidly. The native species (Gleditschia triacan-thos) was a favorite with A. J. Downing, who says of it: There is a peculiar elegance about its light-...

319. The Birches

The most valuable of all the birches for ornamental planting is the cut-leaved weeping variety, classed by Bailey as a variety of Betula alba. If all the varieties with pendent habit should be ...

320. The Oaks

In our relatively new country the oak has not been planted as freely as its merits demand. The impression has been too common that it was a tree of the centuries and that it was too slow in growth ...

321. The Oleasters

What is known at the West as wild olive or oleaster {Elagnus angustifolia) is hardy from the lakes west to Colorado and northwest to Manitoba. This species or variety differs materially from ...

322. Ornamental Species of Prunus

In relatively mild climates of the Eastern and Southern States the Japan weeping and double-flowering cherries noted in catalogues, as single specimens or on certain group borders are unique and ...

323. Mountain-ash Family

The European mountain-ash (Sorbus aucuparia) is a desirable tree for giving variety of expression on the outer edge of groups, and the same is true of the American species (Sorbus Americana). The ...

324. The Apple Family

The wild crab-apple (Pyrus coronaria), especially the Western form of the Soulard type, has value for ornamental planting. Nursery grown, it is as easy to transplant as other apple-trees, and ...

324. Poplars and Willows

These rapid-growing trees have value in certain places in parks and on large places. The true white poplar of east Europe makes a large tree with silvery foliage. It does not sprout as much as the ...

325. The Magnolias

The beautiful evergreen species of this country and Japan are mainly valuable in the South and on the west coast. Of the deciduous species the cucumber-tree (Magnolia acuminata) is the hardiest, ...

326. The Larches

The common European and American larches are peculiar in their adaptation to varied soils and climates. The American species grows naturally in swamps and the European in moist climates as ...

327. Some Other Desirable Trees

The maiden-hair tree (Salisburia adiantifolia) is a specially desirable tree from Japan and central Asia that does well over a large part of the Union. Even in southern Iowa it seems to thrive as ...

328. The Spruces

The Norway spruce has been propagated more extensively as yet than any other species, and has been widely planted in the Eastern and prairie States. But it is now losing its popularity. As the ...

329. The Firs

Several of the firs are short-lived when planted in open exposure. The present limits will only permit the mention of those that have done well over large areas of the country. Abies ...

330. Some of the Pines

The pine-family has many species in about all parts of the earth. In this connection only a few of the hardiest and handsomest can be referred to. The white pine (Pinus strobus) of Iowa and ...