This section is from "The American Cyclopaedia", by George Ripley And Charles A. Dana. Also available from Amazon: The New American Cyclopędia. 16 volumes complete..
Cuba, an island belonging to Spain, the largest and most westerly of the West India group, lying between the Caribbean sea and the gulf of Mexico, and between lat. 19° 50' and 23° 10' N.,, and lon. 74° 7' and 84° 58' W. Its W. extremity, Cape San Antonio, is distant about 130 m. from the coast of Yucatan, from which it is separated by the channel of Yucatan; Point Maysi, its E. end, is 48 m. from Hayti, with the Windward channel between; the strait of Florida separates it on the north from Florida, which is distant 130 m. from Cape Ycacos; and on the south the island of Jamaica lies about 85 m. from English point, near Cape Cruz. The greatest length from E. to W. is 760 m.; the width varies from 20 to 135 m.; area, including dependencies, 47,278 sq. m. In shape it is long, narrow, and slightly curved, the convex side being on the north. The entire coast line is 630 Spanish leagues in extent, equal to about 2,200 English miles. The shores are generally low, and lined with reefs and shallows, extending often from two to three miles into the sea, making the approach difficult and dangerous.
Within these reefs there is occasionally a sandy beach, but around the greater part of the island there is a belt of low land but little above the level of the sea, and subject to floods and inundations. Adjacent to the N. coast, which is 306 leagues in length, and more regular in outline than that on the south, are 5 islands, 6 islets, 37 keys, and 521 small keys, the principal of which are Romano (172 sq. m.), Guajaba (21), Coco (28), Turiguaco (51), Cruz (59), Fragoso, Bocas de Anton, Verde, and the keys on the Colorado banks. On the S. side, the coastline of which is 324 leagues long, are, besides the isle of Pines, which is 42 m. in circumference, 6 islets, 26 keys, and 677 small keys; of these, Cayo Largo contains 32 sq. m. Between Cape Cruz and Ca-silda lie the Cayos de los Doce Leguas, which form an advanced curve to the coast, and which, were the sea to recede a little, would add very considerably to the width of the island. There is another similar curve between Jagua and Cape Corrientes, formed by the Cayos de los Jardines.- Most of the keys and reefs are of coral or limestone formation, and the extreme irregularity of the shore line is due to the ease with which rocks of this kind are acted on by water.
Notwithstanding these peculiarities of the coast, Cuba has over 200 ports, including sheltered landings. The principal of these, besides Havana, which has one of the best harbors in the West Indies, are Bahia Honda, Puerto de Cabanas, Matanzas, Cardenas, Sagua la Grande, La Guanaja, Nuevitas, Manati, Malagueta, Puerto del Padre, Gibara, Banes, and Nipe, on the N. coast; and Guantanamo, Santiago de Cuba, Man-zanillo, Cauto, Santa Cruz, Saza, Tunas, Ca-silda, Cienfuegos, Cochinos, and La Broa, on the S. - Cuba is intersected by a range of mountains, more or less broken, which extends through the entire island from E. to W., and from which the streams flow to the sea on each side. At the E. extremity the mountains spread over a wider territory than elsewhere, and some of them attain the height of 8,000 ft. From Point May si to Cape Cruz the range called.Sierra del Cobre skirts the S. coast for about 200 m. At the W. end the mountains also approach the coast. Some geographers have classified this chain into six groups; but it is generally divided into three, the eastern, central, and western. Among them lie fertile valleys, some of which are 200 m. long and 30 m. wide.
The ranges which give shape to these valleys generally give them also their names, as Sierra de los Organos, Sierra de Anafe, Sierra de la Perdiz. In some places groups of hills form the margin of the island, but for the most part low tracts intervene between the central elevation and the shores; and in the wet season these are rendered almost impassable by the depth of water and the tenacity of the mud. From Jagua to Point Sabina, on the S. side, the country is a continuous swamp for 160 m., and there are many similar tracts of less extent on the 1ST. side. - The rivers are not large, but they are numerous, amounting to 260, independent of rivulets and torrents. The Cauto, the only navigable stream, properly so called, rises in the Sierra del Cobre and empties on the S. coast, a few miles from Manzanillo, opposite the banks of Buena Esperanza. Schooners ascend it about 60 m. Gunboats have passed up during the present civil war, and several engagements have taken place on its banks. Some other streams are navigable for small vessels from 8 to 20 m. After the Cauto, the most important rivers are the Guines and the Ay or Negro. At one time a canal was projected through the Guines river, which would cut the island in two.
The Ay is remarkable for its falls, some of which are nearly 200 ft. high, and for its great natural bridge, after passing under which its waters flow smoothly. There are many mineral springs in the island, the principal of which are those known as the baths of San Diego; they are sulphurous and thermal. Of similar character are those of Madruga, although one of the springs there is said to contain copper. There are other sulphur springs at Charco Azul, Santa Maria del Rosario, San Miguel, and at Santa Fe on the isle of Pines; and sulphuro-gaseous springs exist at Cienfuegos and at Ciego Montero. Nitre predominates in the springs of Copey, and in those of Cacaqual near Havana. The latter was once a frequented bathing place, but is now abandoned. - The geological formation of Cuba is little known, the island having been thoroughly studied only in its commercial aspect. Even its topography is not yet accurately settled. The grand map engraved in Barcelona, although very valuable, cannot always be depended upon, for it is not the result of triangulation, but a compilation of many maps drawn by native surveyors, added to and completed by the labors of the navy.
The works of Humboldt still furnish the most exact data concerning the geology of Cuba. He thinks that the Caribbean was once a mediterranean sea, of which the mountain ranges of micaceous schist in Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica formed the N. limit. The highest peaks of all these islands occur where the islands approach each other nearest, which induces the belief that the nucleus of these mountain ranges was between Cape Tiburon, Hayti, Cape Morant, Jamaica, and the mountains of Cobre, which overtop the Blue mountains of Jamaica. The Caribbean range, after its subsidence into the sea, contributed to the formation of the islands. In Humboldt's opinion four fifths of Cuba consists of low lands. The ground is covered with secondary and tertiary formations, and is traversed by rocks of granite, syenite, gneiss, and euphotide. The gradual decline of the lime formations toward the north and west indicates marine connection of the same rocks with the low lands of the Bahamas, Florida, and Yucatan. The W. part is granitic, and as primitive schist and gneiss have been found, it is presumed that out of these formations came the gold which was so earnestly sought for in the early days of the conquest. The central part contains calcareous formations of clay, limestone, and gres.
In the compact and cavernous layers are contained ferruginous veins and the red earth so common in Cuba. These result from the decomposition of superficial layers of oxidized iron with silica and slate, or with the limestone above them. Humboldt classified this formation as the Guines limestone, and regarded it as the most ancient formation, that in Trinidad and elsewhere being more recent. He considered the gypsum of Cuba as of secondary and not tertiary formation. He also drew a line between the Guines limestone and the conglomerate of the keys and small islands off the S. coast. Notwithstanding the so-called plutonic formations, there are no lavas of recent date. - Almost all metals and minerals applicable to industry are found in Cuba: gold, silver, iron, copper, quicksilver, lead, asphaltum in all its various forms, antimony, arsenic, magnesia, copperas, loadstone, gypsum, red lead, ochre, alum, salt, talc, etc. Gold is found in the Saramaguacan and other rivers. Silver occurs at San Fernando, Pinar del Eio, Canarse, and Yumuri. There is copper in almost all the metamorphic rocks all over the island. It is found usually in the form of copper pyrites, sulphurets, and carbonates. Coal fit for combustion has not been discovered.
Springs and mines of bitumen exist in various parts, sometimes in a calcareous and sometimes in a serpentine formation.' The interstices of the serpentines, diorites, and euphotides are generally filled with chapapote, a highly inflammable bitumen, which is used as a substitute for coal. There are large deposits of rock salt on both the N. and S. coasts. Marble and jasper of very fine quality are found in many places. In the isle of Pines are beautiful colored marbles, and a quarry of white marble but little inferior to statuary marble. There are immense deposits of pure white sand, suitable for earthenware. - The climate is warm and dry during the greater part of the year, but it is more temperate than in other islands of the same latitude, and more equable than in many more northern countries. The thermometer never rises so high as it sometimes does in New York in the hot months, and sunstrokes are unknown. From May to October the heat seldom reaches 100° F. in any part of the island. The highest recorded temperature, in observations extending over many years since 1801, was 104°. In December and January the air is cooled by the N. winds, and the thermometer has occasionally fallen to the freezing point.
The average temperature of Havana is 77°; maximum 89°, minimum 50°. The average temperature of the hottest month is 82°, and of the coldest 72°. In Santiago de Cuba the average of the year is 80°; of the hottest month 84°, of the coldest 73°. The topographical position of Cuba reduces the four seasons of the year to two, the rainy and the dry. In the former the rain pours down in torrents almost every day. The rainfall in the island in one year has reached 133 inches. The rainy season begins in May or June and ends in November, when the season known as the "cold" or the "dry" commences. The most rain falls in September and October. In the dry season the dews are very abundant both at night and in the early morning. The average number of rainy days in a year is 102. The greatest rainfall noted in Havana in a year is 50 in. 6 lines; the smallest, 32 in. 7 lines. In the Eastern department it hails frequently between February and July. There is no record of snow having fallen in Cuba, excepting on Dec. 24-25, 1856, when the coldest term ever known on the island was experienced, and snow fell near Villa Clara, in the central part of the island.
Violent thunder storms occur from June to September. Earthquakes are seldom felt in the western districts, but are frequent in the eastern, especially in the vicinity of Santiago de Cuba. The salubrity of the climate is variously estimated. Some writers consider it favorable to prolonged life; but the most remarkable instances of longevity have been found among the negro and aboriginal races. Others think it unfavorable to health. The yellow fever is justly feared by Europeans and those coming from more temperate climates. The Cuban physicians believe that this disease was not known in the island till 1762. It is not yet known in the interior, and its appearance at many places is recent. It was introduced into Puerto Principe only a few years ago by Spanish troops. - The vegetation of Cuba is very luxuriant. The forests contain some woods almost as hard as iron. One of them is called the quiebra hacha, the axe-breaker; others, such as the jucaro, are imperishable even under water. For fine furniture they are unrivalled.
The marquetry work of the apartment in the Escorial used by Philip II. was made of these woods'. Few of these varieties are found excepting in the West India islands, but their value was long ago appreciated by the Spanish government, and led to the establishment of ship building in the island as early as the beginning of the 18th century. From 1724 to 1796 Havana was the great nursery of the Spanish navy, but the work was finally abandoned because it took employment from the mother country. Lignum vitae and various kinds of dye woods, ebony, rosewood, mahogany, cedar, fustic, lancewood, and many woods suitable for building purposes such as acana, jocuma, etc, abound. The cedar (cedrela odorata, Linn.) furnishes the material of the cigar boxes. The cocoanut palm, the palma real, and the African palm (the Portuguese Parra counted 41 varieties of the palm tree), the sour orange, and the lemon are indigenous. Humboldt says: "We might believe that the entire island was originally a forest of palms and wild lime and orange trees. These last, which have a small fruit, are probably anterior to the arrival of the Europeans, who carried there the agrumi of the gardens, which rarely exceed 10 or 15 ft. in height." The fruits are those common to the tropics. The pineapple is indigenous.
Of the alimentary plants, the banana is one of the most important. When the island was discovered there were six varieties of the sweet potato cultivated by the natives, as well as the yuca or cassava, and Indian corn. - Though the forests are extensive and almost impenetrable, they are inhabited by no wild animals larger than the wild dogs which are occasionally met with. They resemble wolves both in appearance and habits, and are very destructive to young cattle and poultry. They sprung from the domestic European dog, the change in their size, appearance, and habits having been effected by their wild life through many generations. The jutia is an animal of the size of the muskrat, and resembles in its habits the porcupine and the raccoon of the United States, living in trees and feeding on leaves and fruits. More than 200 species of indigenous birds, exclusive of the domesticated kinds, are known, many of them remarkable for the beauty of their plumage. Of migratory birds, the ducks of Florida, or del norte, are the most numerous. The indigenous huyuyo is a miniature of the English duck, and is of splendid plumage. Birds of prey are few. The list of fishes, according to Poey, contains 641 species.
Oysters and other small shellfish are numerous, but of inferior quality compared with those of more northern latitudes. The reefs and shallows abound in turtle, which the Indians bred in large enclosures on the coast to supply their lack of meat; they dried their flesh and thus preserved it for a long time. The alligator, cayman, and iguana are common. There are few snakes: the maja, the largest, sometimes 12 or 14 ft. long, is harmless; the juba, about 6 ft. long, is venomous. The insects are numerous, but none are properly venomous. The bite of the tarantula produces fever, but the scorpion is less poisonous than that of Europe. Among the noxious insects are the mosquito, of which there are 12 varieties; the sand fly; the nigua or jigger; the anobium bibliotecarium, which destroys not only books, but every article of vegetable origin, boring through the obstacle which covers it; and the bibijagua, an ant which destroys all living vegetable matter. The latter afforded to the Indians a delicious morsel in its honeycomb of eggs. The varieties of the butterfly are estimated at 300, and there are as many kinds of flies. The cocuyo, or firefly, is celebrated for its jewel-like beauty, and is often worn by ladies to ornament their dresses.
The Florida bee, which is exotic, is similar to the European variety. The indigenous bee is not classified by Poey as apis melli-fica, but as a trigona fulvipeda. It is much smaller than the Florida bee, and its honey is whiter, but its wax is almost black. - The inhabitants of Cuba are mostly of Spanish and of African descent. For a time after the conquest in 1511, none but Castilians were allowed to settle there; but after the prohibition was removed, colonists from all the provinces, and even from the Canary islands, came thither. All these classes of Spaniards are now represented in the island. The Biscayans hire out as mechanics; the Catalans, who are numerous, devote themselves to hard labor; the Asturians, Castilians, and Andalusians occupy clerkships and pursue the learned professions. In the Eastern department traces still exist of the French emigration from Santo Domingo, and in Cardenas the influence of North Americans is visible even in the shape of the buildings. The Germans in Havana devote themselves to commerce, and they speak Spanish better than most foreigners.
The offspring of foreigners, whether black or white, are called criollos, or Creoles; the children of Creoles are called Hollos; and the country people are known as guagiros, an indigenous term which is also in use on the South American continent. Of the aborigines some families still exist in the Eastern department, as at Caney, near Santiago. They intermarry like the Jews, and their appearance is, as Columbus described it, " not as dark as Canary islanders." The whites consist principally of Spaniards and Creoles, whom political hatred keeps ever apart; the hatred is not so much personal as collective, on account of their class relations. The Creoles are distinguished by their intelligence, conscientiousness, and hospitality. They own sugar estates, houses, and other real estate, while the Spaniards, who are only occasionally planters, monopolize most of the trade. The retail trade is almost entirely carried on by Catalans, so much so that in the interior all Spaniards are known as Catalans. All the offices are in the hands of Spaniards, being the rewards generally of political services. Of the negroes, those who speak Spanish are called ladinos; those who do not, bozales. Africans are called negros de nation, and their progeny become criollos.
The cross of a white man with a black woman, and vice versa, produces a mulatto; the offspring of a mulatto and a black, a chino; all others are known as quadroons. All the numerical reports of the population have been incomplete, the slaves in particular having been generally underestimated. The latest trustworthy census was taken in 1862, those of 1867 and 1872 being merely official estimates. The following is a synopsis of the census of 1862:
DEPARTMENTS. | Whites. | Free colored. | Emainci-pados. | Slaves. | Total. |
Western...... | 601,686 | 125,852 | 4,028 | 302,880 | 1,034,396 |
Central...... | 46,834 | 13,858 | 247 | 15,287 | 75,726 |
Eastern........ | 116,260 | 82,207 | 246 | 50,383 | 249,096 |
Total population............................ | 1,359,438 |
These figures include 34,050 Chinese, but are exclusive of the army and navy and other transient population. It is supposed that the total population of the island has decreased to some extent since 1868, as the deaths and banishments in consequence of the civil war have been very considerable. Notwithstanding the most solemn treaty obligations, the slave trade is still actively prosecuted. Between 1817 and 1842, according to English statistical writers, who were furnished the data from their consulates, 335,000 slaves were imported; a greater number in 25 years than in the 31 years when the trade was legalized. Between 1842 and 1852, no fewer than 45,000 negroes were imported. The "mixed commission," presided over by an English judge, had little effect in suppressing the traffic. A slaver was occasionally captured, and, if a lawful prize, she was retained as such by her captors; but her slaves were apprenticed, under the name of emanci-pados, to the planters, for terms of 8,10, and 15 years, according to their ages. At a later period they were openly traded by the government. The emancipados were no better off than the slaves. When they went into the interior they were reported as dead, and the names of old and infirm slaves whom they substituted were given to them.
The late law concerning slavery, passed June 23, 1870, declares free all born after its passage, and all who had attained at that time the age of 60; but so determined has been the opposition of the slave traders that the government has not been able to enforce it. Chinese were first brought under contract from Amoy in 1847, by the royal society of public works, and were given out for the proportionate cost of their transportation. Afterward the business was converted into a new slave trade by companies and private persons, who raised the prices of importations. Over 50,000 had been brought in up to 1873, and the records of the courts afford abundant proof of the oppression and violence of which they are the victims. When the importation had reached 33,000 it was calculated that the annual mortality was 17 per cent. Indians from Yucatan were also imported at one time under contract, but the government of Mexico prohibited it by enactment, partly in consequence of a regulation passed in Havana authorizing flogging as a punishment. The largest city of the island is Havana, with 205,000 inhabitants. There are 13 other cities, 12 towns, and 324 centres of population known as pueblos (villages) and caserios (hamlets). - Productive industry in Cuba is devoted mainly to sugar and tobacco raising.
General agriculture was early hampered by many obstacles, the greatest of which was the scarcity of labor. The system of mesta or free breeding of cattle interfered much with cultivation of the soil. This system, which was instituted by Charles V., gave the common use of the lands for pasturage after the crops had been gathered. In 1555 this law was modified, and many favors and privileges were granted to agriculturists. Loans of money ($4,000 to persons of known probity) were made by the government to those who devoted themselves to the raising of sugar cane, and the sale of sugar estates for debt was prohibited. The most noteworthy concession was the one authorizing the importation of 1,000 negro slaves. Special privileges were afterward granted to the cultivators of coffee, indigo, and other productions. The creation of the consulado (board of trade, public works, and agriculture) of Havana, and of the "economical society of the friends of the country," contributed to the progress of agriculture. The reports of the royal society, and the Papel periodica (1790), which took the place of the Oa-ceta (1763), directed the industry of the island into new channels; and the emigration from Santo Domingo and the continent added to its prosperity.
But general agriculture has given place mostly to sugar making. The differential duties imposed by foreign nations as an offset to the duties collected in Cuba reduced the production of coffee to little more than enough for local consumption. The only agricultural product which has not been superseded by sugar as a chief article raised for export is tobacco. Cotton is cultivated, but not to any extent compared with the great staples. The mulberry tree (morus multicaulis) grows to perfection, and is raised for silkworms. These worms were introduced into Cuba by Don P. Alejandro Auber, who affirms that they are more prolific and more productive than anywhere else in the world. The cactus, or cochineal fig tree, has been the subject of successful experiments by the economical society. Cacao is cultivated in Remedios on a small scale; and Indian corn, bananas, and other produce called in Cuba grains and viandas, are raised in quantities sufficient for home consumption. The only fruits raised for export are oranges and pineapples.
The tobacco known all over the world as Havana tobacco is grown on the S. coast at the extreme W. end of the island, on a strip of country called the Vuelta Abajo, extending from Rio Hondo to Cuyaguateje and the river Mantua. The tract is of an irregular shape, about 80 m. long by 20 wide. Next in value to the tobacco of the Vuelta Abajo is that of Mayari, which grows over an extent of 54 m. from Mayari to Holguin. The tobacco of outlying districts (ta-oaco de partido) is of good quality all over the island, and equal to any produced in Hayti or on the banks of the Magdalena in Colombia. A caballeria (33 acres) of land produces on an average the following crops:
Sugar.......... | 75,000 lbs. |
Coffee............ | 12,500 " |
Tobacco........... | 9,000 " |
Cacao......... | 25,000 " |
Cotton..... | 6,000 " |
Indigo........... | 1,500 " |
Corn.......... | 20,000 lbs. |
Rice........ | 50,000 " |
Sago......... | 33,000 " |
Bananas..... | 2,000 bunches. |
Yuca.... | 50,000 lbs. |
Cattle raising is largely carried on, and although it does not fully supply the demand, it represents a large amount of capital. The alternate system of pasturage has been recently adopted, but the plan of natural pasturage finds most favor. Estates on which cattle and horses are raised are called hatos, and those where hogs are bred, corrales. Of late years very good stock, including Durham and Devonshire bulls, has been imported into Camaguey, but the insurrection has swept them away. The establishment .of artificial pastures (potreros), and the importation of good stock, have tended to improve the breed of cattle. The grass chiefly sown in the artificial pastures is the Para grass, which has lately been introduced. The 3,285 breeding estates produce annually $5,286,180. Cuba contains 1,059,432 caballerias, equal to about 35,000,000 acres of land, distributed as follows:
In agriculture proper...... | 80,682 |
" barren lands.............. | 225,195 |
" forests............ | 466,331 |
" natural pastures...... | 262.620 |
" artificial......... | 24,604 |
Total.................... | 1,059,432 |
The production of sugar and molasses has decreased somewhat since the breaking out of the civil war. The following exhibits the amount of these staples in tons produced during the first four years of the war:
YEARS. | Sugar. | Molasses. | Total. |
1863...................... | 749,389 | 286,161 | 1,035,550 |
1869...................... | 726,237 | 279,550 | 1,005,787 |
1870...................... | 725,505 | 245,870 | 971,375 |
1871...................... | 546,479 | 184,965 | 731,444 |
The value of the products from sugar cane, tobacco, and the honey bee, for 1871, was $78,371,897. - The mineral productions of Cuba have been hitherto but little developed. The precious metals do not exist in sufficient quantities to pay for working. Copper mines were opened as early as 1515 to obtain metal for casting cannon, but they were soon abandoned on account of the restrictions placed by the government on the business. In 1741, when Admiral Vernon took the bay of Guan-tanamo and founded the town of Cumberland Harbor (now Pichardo), copper money was coined by order of Governor Cajigal. From this time up to 1830 the mines were unworked. In the latter year foreign companies reopened them, and a native company, called the "San Jose," was organized soon after. A mining excitement followed, and in 1844 there were 227 mines in operation. Many of these were afterward abandoned, but two foreign companies and the company of San Jose, in the Sierra del Cobre, were in operation at the beginning of the war. Those of Buyatabo in the Central department, of Los Pobres in Trinidad, and of the Vuelta Abajo have given but poor results. Iron ore of fair quality has been discovered in the jurisdiction of La Ha-bana, but has not been worked to much extent.
Mines of alum and copperas were once worked in the mountains of Juragua, but were soon abandoned. Salt being a government monopoly, the natural salt mines are not worked, but salt is collected in considerable quantities along the coast. Over 100,000 lbs. are made yearly at Point Ycacos and at Choco. There is some doubt whether mining would be very profitable in Cuba, even if it were not paralyzed by taxation. - The manufacturing industry consists chiefly in the preparation of sugar, molasses, and coffee, the bleaching of wax, and the making of cigars. Other manufactures are of little importance, the people generally being disinclined to mechanical pursuits. - Previous to 1762 Cuba had no commerce. At that date permission was given to subjects born in Spain and coming from certain places to trade freely. The laws of 1789 and later ones aided the development of trade, but the interests of the island were in perpetual conflict with interests in Europe. At one time the port of Seville had the monopoly of the trade; at a later period it was given to Cadiz. For over 200 years these were the only ports allowed to carry on commerce with the Indies. In 1778 Charles III. made an effort to foster commerce by making all the ports of Spain free for trade with Cuba. In the first period of Cuban history, from the discovery of the island to 1762, the country lived in great part by smuggling.
In the second period, during which trade with Spanish ports through the port of Havana was permitted, the commerce was not sufficient to feed the island, and at times it was found necessary to allow trade with foreign ports, which soon grew into importance. These exceptional years and the value of imports from foreign countries were as follows: 1792, $1,904,339; 1798, $917,307; 1799, $2,003,564; 1805, $10,541,138; 1810, $10,875,789. In the succeeding years up to 1818 there was always some trade carried on under foreign flags, which at times exceeded $9,000,000, and was never under $2,557,000. The third period of the commercial history of Cuba, beginning with 1818, when foreign trade was allowed, is marked by her growth and prosperity. Passaron, in his work on the "Re-sources and Commerce of Cuba " (1858), proves that Spain herself had been benefited by this concession, and that in 1854 her exports to Cuba exceeded those sent by her to all America in 1792. In 1859, when the statistical bureau was better organized than ever before, the total exports of Cuba were officially estimated at $57,455,185 32; imports, $43,465,679 57. The exports of sugar and molasses in tons for 1870 and 1871 were as follows:
DESTINATION. | SUGAR. | M0LASSES. | ||
18T0. | 1871. | 1870. | 1871. | |
United states.... | 846,222 | 337,428 | 178,751 | 139,437 |
Great Britain..... | 203,539 | 73,151 | 14,301 | 8,991 |
British provinces....... | •••■•• | 19,929 | 2,790 | |
Spain and the Mediterranean.... | 52,533 | 37,901 | ........ | .......... |
France..... | 34,970 | 10,032 | ......... | ......... |
Northern Europe.... | 9,662 | 7,258 | ......... | ........ |
Other countries.... | 12,960 | 5,171 | 407 | 1,241 |
The value of exports for 1870 and 1871 was as follows:
ARTICLES. | 1870. | 1871. |
Sugar.......... | $60,000,000 | $50,400,000 |
Molasses.................... | 8,000,000 | 5,600,000 |
Leaf tobacco..... | 3,941,186 | 4,640,000 |
Cigars....................... | 6,659,480 | 6.611,440 |
Coffee, wax, etc.... | 4,000,000 | 4,000,000 |
Total................... | $82,600,066 | $71,251,440 |
These figures must be regarded as only an approximation to the true amounts, as all the exports are officially undervalued. The exports to the United States in 1871, according to United States official data, amounted to $58,240,584; in 1872, $67,720,205. The imports from the United States in 1871 were $15,840,202; in 1872, $14,751,956. No statistics of the values of imports for late years are accessible. The following table exhibits the quantities of some of the principal imports during three years:
ARTICLES. | 1870. | 1871. | 1872. |
Jerked beef,quintals..... | 296,232 | 240,454 | 183,098 |
Codfish,quintals..... | 86,340 | 44,857 | 98,019 |
Flour, bbls......... | 330,959 | 224,755 | 247,726 |
Rice, quintals..... | 717,135 | 507,836 | 547,671 |
Lard, quintals........ | 205,456 | 84,246 | 58,492 |
Wines, pipes..... | 79,898 | 67,366 | 64,193 |
boards,M.feet...... | 21,503 | 18,634 | 32,668 |
Box shooks, number..... | 653,481 | 890,237 | 627,832 |
Hhd. shooks, number..... | 60,715 | 71,598 | 55,914 |
Oats, tons............... | 145,366 | 89,340 | 128,187 |
Olive oil, jars........ | 882,726 | 863,004 | 437,935 |
Coal oil, gals........... | 90,100 | 84,719 | 58,298 |
Whale oil, gals.......... | 650 | 1,500 | 4,320 |
Of these articles, the lard, lumber, shooks, coal oil, and whale oil come from the United States; the wine and olive oil from Spain; the flour and oats from the United States and Spain; the jerked beef from South America; the codfish from the British provinces, the United States, and Europe; and the rice from the United States, Spain, and the East Indies. In 1859, 42 per cent, of the commerce was under the Spanish flag, and 58 per cent, under foreign flags. The following shows the number and tonnage of the American, Spanish, British, and French vessels entered at the port of Havana in the years 1870 and 1871:
YEARS. | AMERICAN. | SPANISH. | BRITISH. | FRENCH | ||||
No. | Tons. | No. | Tons. | No. | Tons. | No. | Tons. | |
1870 | 738 | 361,658 | 677 | 181,792 | 340 | 125,572 | 35 | 37,490 |
1871 | 740 | 335,158 | 670 | 191,022 | 262 | 77,504 | 34 | 34,932 |
In 1872 the entries of vessels at Havana were 1,960, of 738,310 aggregate tonnage. Of the exports of the same year, 70.75 per cent were sent to the United States and 19.27 per cent, to Great Britain. Under the system of discriminating duties Spain was able for a long time to almost monopolize the trade in flour and provisions, but of late years she has gradually been losing ground. In 1863 Spain landed in Cuba 210,262 bbls. of flour, while the United States sent there but 1,180 bbls.; but in 1872 the shipments of the former had decreased to 195,-205 bbls., and those of the latter increased to 52,521 bbls. During the same period Spain's shipments of rice fell off one half and those of the United States doubled. - The system of education in Cuba originally conformed to that in Spain, but it has been modified from time to time according to the personal characters of the rulers of the island. Under the house of Austria laws were passed authorizing the creation of universities in the Indies. The university of Havana was established in 1722 by a pontifical bull of Innocent XIII., which was approved by the Spanish government, Jan. 5, 1729. There had been classes many years before in the convent of the Franciscans in Havana, where Latin, philosophy, and theology were taught, but no degrees were conferred.
Government had no direct supervision of education till 1842. In that year the Dominican friars ceased to govern the "Royal and Pontifical university," which was declared a national establishment under the name of " Literary university." The governor general nominated the professors, who were subsequently approved by the supreme government. The study of the natural sciences was introduced at that date. Gen. Concha, in connection with the professors, drew up a complete plan of public education; but subsequently, in 1863, when he was minister, the classes in philosophy were ordered to be suppressed, and the system was assimilated to that in Spain. Since then philosophical and transcendental studies have been confined within very narrow limits; but the faculties in the ecclesiastical seminaries and in the colleges of the religious orders have been increased. There are two seminaries for the clergy, the college of San Carlos in Havana, and that of San Basilio in Santiago de Cuba; the former is also the successor of the college of St. Ambrose and of the school of the Jesuits, where instruction was given to laymen. The expenses of education in the higher branches are defrayed from the public revenues, according to official statements. The town councils pay the expenses of primary education.
The amount disbursed for educational purposes in 1866 was as follows: primary schools, $1,131,354; grammar schools, $459,056; collegiate seminaries, $42,000; professional education, $73,619; university education, $71,600; total, $1,777 720. There are 209 public schools on the island, of which 93 are for girls, and 245 private schools. The whole number of children attending them is 22,200 of both sexes, of whom 21,000 are white and 1,200 colored. Two thirds of the whole receive education free. The proportion of those who can read and write, exclusive of Chinese, is: white males, 45 per cent.; white females, 35 per cent.; colored males, 5 per cent.; colored females, 6 per cent. The number of newspapers, political and literary, published in 1868, was 39, distributed as follows: in Havana, 21; in Santiago de Cuba, 5; in Matan-zas, 3; in Cienfuegos, Villa Clara, and Santo Espiritu, 2 each; in Cardenas, Remedios, Trinidad, and Puerto Principe, 1 each. In 1869, during the few days of the liberty of the press granted by Gen. Dulce, 40 new journals were started in Havana alone; but of many of these one number only was issued.
Of the Verdad ("Truth"), which from its form and matter might aspire to the rank of a political newspaper, three numbers appeared and 14,000 copies were sold each day, an unprecedented occurrence in Havana. - The history of literature in Cuba begins with the revival of belles-lettres in the time of Charles III. The prominent names in general literature in the 18th century are Francisco de Arango and Tomas Romay; a part of the works of the latter belong to the next century. In the 19th century figure Fre-derico de Armas, Anastasio Carrillo, Jose de Frias, Manuel Costales, Ramon Zambrana, and Gaspar Betancourt, better known as El Luga-refio. The Cuban poets of the 18th .century are Rubalcaba of Santiago de Cuba, and Manuel Zequicha of Havana; of this century, Jose M. Heredia, Placido, Milanes, and many others. Of sacred writers and moralists, T. Barea, Rafael de Castillo y Sucre, Francisco del Cristo, Felix Veranes, Jose Agustin Caballero, and Father Gonzales belong to the last century; in the present century Felix Varela, Father Oliva, and Friar Remigio Cernados are the most distinguished.
In philosophy the same Father Caballero was prominent in the 18th century; in the present, the principal writers are Felix Varela, professor of modern philosophy in Cuba and in many other parts of Spanish America, and formerly vicar apostolic of New York, Jose de la Luz Caballero, and Jose Gonzales del Valle. As jurisconsults, the lights of the 18th century are Francisco Conde, Pedro Ayala, and Rafael Gonzales; of the 19th, Francisco de Armas, Jose A. Govantes, Anacleto Bermudez, Jose Antonio Cintra, Isidro Carbonell, and many others. The historians of the 18th century are Arrati and Urrutia; of the 19th, A. Valdez, Jose Arango y Castillo, and the writers of the historical bureau of the economical society. Dramatic literature was little cultivated in the last century. The only work which was often represented on the stage was the Principe jar-dinerc, by Father Jose Rodriguez (a) Capacho, who was also a poet and a satirical writer. In this century, the poet Milanes produced the Conde de Alarcos. Some European writers resident in Cuba have enriched her literature, such as Pablo Boloix, Pedro A. Auber, Father Velez, and others. In the fine arts Vermay and Perouani have been distinguished.
Of all these writers, whose names are taken from the Biblioteca Cubana of 1869, none are now living. - Cuba, with the islands dependent upon it, forms the captain-generalcy of La Habana, which is subject in all branches of the administration to one authority, the representative of the Spanish sovereignty, who has the unlimited powers of a general in time of war, and is accountable only to the home government by which he is appointed. He is assisted by an administrative council, also chosen by the supreme government, whose opinion is taken in certain cases, chiefly in matters of finance. The division of the island is sixfold, civil, military, naval, fiscal, judicial, and ecclesiastical. In its civil or political aspect the whole island is under the command of a governor-in-chief (gobernador superior), who is always the captain general; and is divided into five governorships, as follows: La Habana, Matanzas, the Central or Puerto Principe, the Eastern or Santiago de Cuba, and the Western. Each of these departments is in charge of a lieutenant governor, and they are subdivided into 33 political districts. The captain general has also military command of the entire island.
The military divisions are three, the Western, Central, and Eastern, the respective capitals of which are Havana, Puerto Principe, and Santiago de Cuba. Of the first the captain general has the sole charge; the second is commanded by the governor of Puerto Principe, the third by the governor of Santiago de Cuba. These departments are subdivided into eight comandancias generates, viz.: Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas, Santa Clara, Moron, El Principe, Holguin, and Cuba. There are also various comandancias de armas. The naval government is in charge of a commandant general, whose headquarters (apostadero) are in Havana. It is divided into five provinces, Havana, San Juan de los Remedios, Nuevitas, Santiago de Cuba, and Cienfuegos. These are subdivided into subdelegaciones. Each province is under the command of an adjutant (ayudante), and each subdelegation of an alcalde de mar. The fiscal administration consists of a central bureau of taxes and seven local districts, which are Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas, Santa Clara, Trinidad, Puerto Principe, and Santiago de Cuba. The captain general is the general superintendent of finance.
Judicially the island is divided into two audiencias: the pretorial court of Havana, which comprises the western part, including Remedios and Santo Espiritu; and that of Santiago de Cuba, the eastern portion. These are subdivided into 25 judicial districts, each of which is in charge of a local judge or justice of the peace. The ecclesiastical divisions are two, the Eastern diocese, which is ruled by the archbishop of Santiago de Cuba, and the Western, by the bishop of Havana. They are reciprocally courts of appeal, each from the other's decrees. The revenues are derived from two sources, maritime and inland. The former comprise customs and lighthouse dues, ship visits, etc.; the latter direct and indirect taxes upon almost everything assessible, and lotteries. There are no statistics accessible later than those published in 1862. The following exhibits the income and expenditure for the three years preceding that date:
1859. | 1860. | 1861. | |
Income..... | $25,810,222 70 | $25,979,088 42 | $26,423,228 69 |
Expenditure.. | 20,803,217 80 | 22,173,900 68 | 26,490,219 50 |
Since the outbreak of the civil war the expenditure has far exceeded the revenues. It was stated in the Spanish cortes, Oct. 27, 1871, that the cost of the war during the preceding year had been $62,000,000, and that the colonial deficit for the same period was $11,000,000. Even in time of peace the greater part of the revenue is absorbed by the expenses of the army and navy. - In ordinary times there are stationed in Cuba, besides the disciplined militia and the militia of Ferdinand VII., 20,000 regular troops, who are either drafted or enlisted by bounty in Spain. This force has been much increased since the breaking out of the war. According to official data published in Madrid in 1870, the regular troops in Cuba amounted to 23,000, the expeditionary corps to 33,000, and the militia in active service to 4,000, making a total in the field of 60,000. Besides these there were 70,000 volunteers in garrison, who seldom went into the field. The Spanish navy in the Antilles is never less than from 25 to 30 vessels, carrying over 200 guns and 3,000 men.
Since the outbreak of the war 30 light-draft gunboats, built in the United States, have been added to this fleet, to be used in guarding the coasts against filibustering expeditions, and other vessels for a similar purpose have been purchased as late as 1873. The active military force has been considerably decreased by sickness and by the casualties of war, but partial reinforcements from Spain are continually arriving. - For facility of exchange the government established in 1854 a bureau of discount (caja de descuentos), with a capital of $800,000, on the reserve of the treasury. It resulted in nothing, and was soon abandoned. In 1840 various companies were started by private capital, which discounted notes, received deposits, and loaned money on mortgage. The first was the Havana bank of savings, discount, and deposit. The Spanish bank was organized by a joint-stock company in 1856, with a capital of $3,000,000. It issued bills payable to bearer on presentation, and at first its issue was limited to a part of its capital; but it has increased to such an extent that its bills now represent several times the amount of its capital. It suspended specie payments in 1868. In 1871 it began to issue fractional bills to supply the deficiency of coin.
Up to 1868 the acceptance of its bills was optional; since then it has been imperative, and any one who refuses them is regarded as an insurgent. Previous to the issuing of notes by this bank there was no circulating medium on the island but gold and silver. - Internal communication was formerly very difficult on account of the want of good roads, but has much improved since the introduction of railways, which were used in Cuba before they were in any other Spanish-speaking country, the first, that from Havana to Guines, having been opened in 1837. There are now (1873) 829 miles in operation in the island, comprising the following lines: Havana, from Havana to Union, 77 m., with branches from Guines to Matanzas, 36 m.; Sa-bana de Roble to Madruza, 4 m.; Rincon to Guanajay, 32 m.; San Felipe to Batabano, 10 m.; the Marianao railway, from Havana to Ma-rianao, 7 m.; railway of the bay, from Havana to Matanzas, 56 m., with a branch from Matanzas to Bemba, 44 m.; the Matanzas, from Matanzas to Baro, 68 m., with a branch from Navajas to Torriente, 16m.; the Cardenas and Jucaro, from Cardenas to Navajas, 36 m., with branches from Bemba to Macagua, 45 m.; Cardenas to Palrnillas, 51 m.; Macagua to Santo Domingo, 37 m.; to Itabo, 14 m.; the Western, from Havana to San Cristobal, 63 m.; the Sagua la Grande, from Sagua to Las Cruces, 48 m.; the Puerto Principe, from Puerto Principe to Nuevitas, 52 m.; the Cienfuegos and Villa Clara, from Cienfuegos to Villa Clara, 51 m.; the Caibarien and Santo Espiritu, from Caibarien to San Andres, 24 m.; the Santiago de Cuba, from Santiago to San Luis, 28 m.; the Cobre, from Santiago to Cobre, 11 m.; the Trinidad, from Asilda (port) to Trinidad, and Trinidad to Guines, 19 m.
Among the projected railways are roads from Carahatas to Ma-llarquin, from Santo Espiritu to Sasa, and from Gibara to Holguin and Manzanillo. These roads are all controlled by private companies. The first steamboat in Cuba was taken to Havana by Don Juan O'Farrell, a planter of Irish descent, who purchased it almost as soon as steam was applied to navigation. Steamers now ply between Havana and all the chief ports on the coast and the other West India islands. There is also a mail steamship line to Cadiz twice a month, and lines to New York, New Orleans, Baltimore, Southampton, Liverpool, Havre, Hamburg, and the ports of Central America. The first telegraph line was built in 1852. The submarine cable between the island and Florida was laid in 1867-'8, and that to Jamaica in 1870. The latter is connected with other West India islands. A third cable, laid in 1871, connects Bataban6 and Santiago de Cuba. - Cuba was discovered by Columbus, Oct. 28, 1492. It is generally thought that he entered the island near Nuevitas, on the N. coast, by the river Maximo. He believed that it was a part of the continent, but later, in a letter to Sanchez, he accepted the opinion of the Indians and called it an island.
On his return to Cuba, however, he reaffirmed his previous belief, and had a report drawn up and published in order that his opinion might be set down in due form. He gave to his new discovery the name of Juana, in honor of Prince Juan, the heir of his royal patrons. It was subsequently called Fernandina, after the death of Ferdinand, and still later Santiago and Ave Maria; but none of these names supplanted that of Cuba, by which it was known to the natives. The island was thickly populated by a docile race of Indians, who extended to all the large West India islands and the Bahamas. They called themselves by the general name of Tainos, the Good, but the Cubans were known specifically as Siboneyes. In 1511 Diego Velasquez, who had been appointed adelantado of Cuba by Diego Columbus, overran the island with 300 men. The natives, unable to cope with the invaders, were easily subdued, and Hatuey, their chief, who fell into the hands of the Spaniards, was burned at the stake near the present town of Yara. Baracoa, at the E. end of the island, was founded at this time, and in 1514 Santiago, which was made the capital, and Trinidad on the S. coast.
In the same year a place on the S. coast, at the mouth of the river Ojicajinal, was settled and called San Cristobal de la Habana; but the name was transferred to a new site on the N. coast, near where the river Marianao falls into the sea, and still later, in 1519, to the present locality. Velasquez also founded Bayamo, Puerto Principe, and Santo Espiritu. The natives were soon brought into complete subjection, and were allotted to the settlers as encomiendas, in gangs of about 300 to each Spaniard, who employed them in the cultivation of the soil, principally in the growing of sugar cane. They disappeared so rapidly under the cruel treatment which they received that in 1553 there were but few left. As early as 1534 the officials applied to the emperor for "7,000 negroes, that they might become inured to labor before the Indians ceased to exist." With the virtual extinction of the natives the agriculture of the island declined, and it became mainly a pastoral country. In 1537 Diego Columbus relinquished by agreement his right to appoint the government for Cuba, and the king made Hernando de Soto captain general.
The audiencia (supreme court), which had been organized in Santo Domingo for the administration of justice, was soon transferred to Cuba (Puerto Principe), and a law was passed appointing the captain general the president of the court. The island was governed as one department up to 1607, when it was divided into two. All powers, civil and military, were vested in the captain general, who resided at Santiago, which was the capital till 1552, when Angulo removed it to Havana. All the governors had the title of captain general, although many of them were civilians, and their substitutes were called lieutenants general. In the early days the discovery of Mexico and other countries drained the island of its working population, and the government passed a law imposing the penalty of death on all who left. Other laws prohibited all foreigners, and even Spanish subjects not natives of Castile, from trading with the island or settling in it. The increase of population was therefore slow; the introduction of negroes was gradual, and growth was almost stopped. After the capture of Jamaica by the English, in 1655, smuggling was largely carried on.
On the arrival of Governor General Valdez in the latter part of the 17th century, it was discovered that nearly all the Havanese were guilty of the crime of rescate or illicit trading, the penalty of which was death. At the suggestion of Valdez, a ship was freighted with presents for the king and sent to Spain with a petition for pardon, which was granted. Havana was destroyed by the French twice in the 16th century. In 1592 it received the title of city. During this century monastic institutions were introduced into Cuba, and in 1576 the inquisition sent a delegate thither. In 1631 there were six militia companies, armed with arquebuses and crossbows. Epidemics carried off many of the inhabitants in 1648 and 1654. The disease was called putrid fever, but many suspect it to have been yellow fever. The people of Cuba took sides in the dissensions that ensued on the death of Charles III., but through the efforts of Bishop Evelino de Compostela bloodshed was prevented and a peaceful triumph obtained for the partisans of Philip V. In 1717 a revolt broke out in consequence of the attempt to establish a tobacco monopoly.
Governor Raja was obliged to flee, but the trouble was quelled, and the factory was set up; it continued until the beginning of the present century, when it was suppressed by Arango. In 1723 a second uprising took place, induced by oppressive government, and 12 of those implicated were hanged by the captain general Guazo. Printing was introduced about this time. Between 1724 and 1747 many ships were built at Havana, comprising 6 ships of the line, 21 of 70 to 80 guns each, 26 of 50 to 60 guns, 14 frigates of 30 to 40 guns, and 58 smaller vessels; in all, 125 vessels, carrying 4,000 guns. Since the latter date there has been little ship building there. During the present century the machinery of one steamer, the Sagua, was built at Sagua la Grande, and one war steamer and one merchant steamer were built in Havana. In 1762 Havana was taken by an English fleet and army under Lord Albemarle. The English retained the island only until July of the following year, but during that time over 900 loaded vessels entered the port of Havana, more than all the previous entries since the discovery. Prior to this period 60,000 slaves had been Imported. From 1763 to 1789 the importation was about 1,000 a year.
In the latter year the Spanish slave code was promulgated, and the slave trade, previously a monopoly, was made free, after which importations increased largely. In 1763 the Gaceta de la Havana was started, and a post office department was established. In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from Cuba, as from the rest of the Spanish dominions. Under the administration of Las Casas, which began in 1790, Cuba made rapid progress in commercial prosperity and in public improvements. He developed all branches of industry, fostered the patriotic societies, and permitted the establishment of newspapers. By his judicious government the tranquillity of the island was maintained during the time of the revolution in Santo Domingo. In 1808, when the royal family of Spain was deposed by Napoleon, the Cubans declared for the crown, and proved their loyalty by numerous voluntary subscriptions, by the publication of vehement pamphlets, and by sending their sons to fight. But scarcely any of the promises made to them were fulfilled. Since that time the island has been ruled by a succession of captains general from Spain, some of whom have tried to advance the interests of the people, but the most of whom have done little else than make fortunes for themselves.
The government has been generally of the most oppressive character, and if the island has advanced in prosperity, it has been in spite of all. the obstacles which mismanagement could invent. In 1825 the royal order of the omnimodas was sent to Cuba, but it was not ratified till 1836; it empowered the captain general to rule at all times as if the island were in a state of siege. In March of the latter year a permanent military commission was established, which took cognizance of even ordinary offences, but particularly of all offences involving disloyalty. Previous to 1810 no one had ever been executed in Cuba for a political offence. In that year Jose R. Aleman, an emissary of Joseph Bonaparte, was hanged in Havana. In the years 1845 to 1847 the slave trade was nearly brought to an end through the energy of Captain General Valdez. But the increased consumption of sugar in Great Britain, in consequence of the reduction of duty, and the placing of foreign and British sugars on the same footing, afterward gave a new stimulus to the traffic.
The efforts of the Spanish officials for its suppression were relaxed, and it attained a height greater than ever before. - There has been more or less discontent in Cuba since the beginning of the present century, but the project of annexation to the United States was not mooted until the French republic was proclaimed in 1848. The United States, after the acquisition of Florida, began to take a deep interest in the future of the island. Fears were entertained that it might fall into the hands of the English or French, and Spain and those nations were informed that such a disposition of it would never be consented to. Its contiguity to the coasts of the United States and it's position at the entrance of the gulf of Mexico, surrounded by 12 different nationalities, give it an importance which could not be disregarded. The American government expressed its willingness that it should remain a Spanish colony, but averred that it would never permit it to pass into other foreign hands. On this principle the American government opposed the contemplated invasion of Bolivar, and urged Spain to make peace with the Spanish American republics in order to save Cuba from a change in her political and social system.
In 1825 a proposition was made by Spain that in consideration of certain commercial concessions the United States should guarantee to her the possession of Cuba; but it was declined on the ground that such a course was contrary to the established policy of the United States. In 1848 President Polk authorized the American minister at Madrid to offer $100,000,000 for Cuba; but the proposition was rejected in the most peremptory manner. In 1849 Nar-ciso Lopez, a native Venezuelan, but who had lived long in Cuba, where he had been in the Spanish military service, came to the United States with a number of Cubans, having been implicated in revolutionary movements. He represented the Creole population as dissatisfied with Spanish rule and ready for revolt and annexation to the United States. Recruits were collected for a descent upon the island. The first expedition, in 1849, was defeated by the vigilance of the United States authorities. A second attempt was made in 1850, and a landing effected at Cardenas; but it resulted in failure, and the party were driven to sea.
In August, 1851, Lopez sailed from New Orleans in a steamer with 500 men, and landed at Morillo in the Vuelta Abajo. The expected uprising of the people did not take place, many of his men were killed in the engagements, 50 captured with Col. Crittenden were shot in Havana, and the survivors, who with their leader had taken refuge in the woods, were soon made prisoners. Lopez was gar-roted in Havana Sept. 1; some others of his comrades were shot, but most of the survivors were transported and subsequently pardoned. In 1852 President Fillmore refused to join with France and Great Britain in a treaty guaranteeing to Spain the possession of Cuba. This rendered the Spanish government more alert in guarding against revolution within and expeditions from without, and led to occasional collisions with American citizens. The firing on the American steamer Black Warrior by a Spanish vessel of war, during the administration of President Pierce, threatened at one time to lead to hostilities. Since then the question of the acquisition of Cuba has entered frequently into American politics.
In August, 1854, Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soule, United States ministers at London, Paris, and Madrid respectively, held a conference at Ostend and Aix-la-Chapelle and drew up a statement popularly known as the Ostend manifesto. In this document they argued that Cuba ought to belong to the United States, and that Spain would find its sale to be highly advantageous; and that in certain contingencies, such as the emancipation of the slaves by the Spanish government, the United States ought to possess themselves of the island by force. A proposition was urged in the United States senate in the session of 1858-'9 to place $30,000,000 in the hands of the president with a view to the acquisition of the island; but after debate it was withdrawn by its author, Mr. Slidell of Louisiana. In the mean time the agitation of the question of independence still continued in Cuba, and suspected persons were arrested and imprisoned or banished without trial in the most arbitrary manner. In 1852 a conspiracy was discovered, and the leaders were condemned to death or to hard labor for life. In 1854 Gen. Jose de la Concha, in anticipation of an uprising of the Creole population, threatened to Africanize the island.
He formed and drilled battalions of black troops, armed the native-born Spaniards and disarmed the Cubans, and made ready for a desperate defence. His energy probably prevented a revolution at the time. The Cuban junta in New York had made preparations for a descent on the coast, and had enrolled a large body of men; but under the circumstances the attempt was postponed. Pinto and Estrampes, Cubans taken with arms in their hands, were executed, and about 100 others were condemned to the galleys or deported. Gen. Concha was created marquis of Havana for his services. For the succeeding ten years the island was comparatively quiet; but the party of independence was only awaiting an opportunity to strike. On Aug. 2, 1867, Francisco V. Aguilera, Manuel A. Aguilera, and Francisco Maceo Osorio met in the house of the last named in Bayamo, and formed a conspiracy to liberate Cuba from Spanish rule. A few months later their associates were so numerous that the leaders found it difficult to restrain them from striking prematurely. The revolutionary movement spread rapidly throughout the Eastern department.
In Manzanillo Carlos Manuel de Cespedes placed himself at its head; in Holguin, Belisario Alvarez; in Las Tunas, Vicente Garcia; in Jigua-ni, Donato Marmol; and in Santiago de Cuba, Manuel Fernandez. These men met in September, 1808, to set a day for the rising. At this meeting all the deputies, with the exception of those from Manzanillo, insisted on the necessity of delaying action for at least six months, but no decision was arrived at. Another consultation was held on Oct. 3, at which Francisco Aguilera urged a delay of 16 days. His arguments were accepted as conclusive at the time, but two days afterward it was agreed definitively that the blow should be struck on Oct. 14. In the mean time news of the projected outbreak had reached Havana. On Oct. 9 a letter carrier was detained at Ces-pedes's sugar estate, La Demajagua, and found to be the bearer of an order for the arrest of the conspirators. Cespedes deemed it expedient to strike at once, and with only 200 badly armed men at his command he declared for independence on the field of Yara, Oct. 10. Yara was defended by a Spanish force too strong for the insurgents, but on the 13th attacks were made on Las Tunas, Cauto Embarcadero, Ji-guani, La Guisa, El Datil, and Santa Rita. On the 18th Bayamo was captured; the governor shut himself in the fort with a few men, but capitulated on the 22d. A Spanish force under Col. Quiros, numbering about 800 infantry, besides cavalry and artillery, which had left Santiago de Cuba for the relief of Bayamo, was defeated and driven back to the former place with heavy loss.
Camaguey soon followed the example of Yara. A republican form of government was organized, at the head of which were placed Salvador Cisneros Betan-court, marquis of Santa Lucia, and Ignacio and Eduardo Agramonte. On Nov. 25 Gen. Count Valmaseda, who had been sent from Havana into the insurrectionary district with the San Quintin regiment, set out from Puerto Principe for Nuevitas by rail, but was attacked on the following day and forced to return, leaving his dead on the field. Five days later he reached San Miguel, his force being harassed the entire distance. In December Col. Acosta y Alvear was defeated by the Cubans at Las Yaguas with heavy loss. Cespedes had proclaimed himself captain general in the Eastern department, and early in December a conference between the leaders in both departments was held at Guaimaro, but no consolidation was effected. Arrangements were made however to act in concert. Meanwhile Valmaseda, who was still at San Miguel, increased his force to 4,000 men and marched on Bayamo. He received a severe check at Saladillo, but finally succeeded in crossing the Cauto. The Cubans in Bayamo, seeing the hopelessness of defence, burned the city.
On Dec 26 Gen. Quesada landed a cargo of arms and took command of the army of Camaguey. The railroad between Nuevitas and Puerto Principe was cut by the insurgents, and the situation of the latter place became so critical that heavy reinforcements were sent thither from Havana. In October, 1868, Spain had 19,700 men of all arms in Cuba. Before the close of the year 20,000 additional troops had been sent from Europe, over 12,000 contra-guerrillas recruited on the island, and 40,000 volunteers organized for the defence of cities. The volunteers or national guard were raised from Spanish immigrants, between whom and the native Cubans has always existed a bitter jealousy and enmity. In 1873 they numbered about 60,000 in the whole island, and 11,000 in Havana. In January, 1869, they committed fearful atrocities at Havana, shooting men, women, and children in the Villanueva theatre, at the Louvre, and at the sack of Aldama's house. In February Gen. Dulce, successor of Lersundi as captain general, sent commissioners to the Cubans to open negotiations, offering them everything but independence, but met with no encouragement. On Feb. 26 the "assembly of representatives of the centre" assumed its functions in Camaguey, and the first act of the new government was the abolition of slavery.
In the same month the Villas district rose against Spanish rule; and the insurgents, who numbered over 7,000 men under Gen. Ruloff, a Pole, were successful in several engagements. A national convention was held at Guaimaro, April 10, at which were present Cespedes, chief of the provisional government of the Eastern department, the members of the Camagueyan assembly, the deputies from Villa Clara, and representatives from Santo Espiritu, Holguin, and Jiguani. A constitution was adopted. The republic was divided into four states, Oriente, Camaguey, Las Villas, and Occidente. Full legislative powers were given to the chamber of representatives, to which was intrusted the nomination of a president and of a commander-in-chief of the army. Both of these officers were to hold their position at the will of the chamber, which had the power to remove them without previous indictment. The flag adopted was the one which had been unfurled by Agiiero and Lopez. On April 11 Cespedes was elected president and Manuel Quesada commander-in-chief. On April 18 a Spanish force of 200 men was surrounded and most of the number were killed or captured.
Gen. Valmaseda had meanwhile issued a proclamation decreeing that every male over 15 years of age found in the country away from his home, without justifiable reason, should be shot; that every house on which a white flag was not displayed should be burned; and that all women and children found alone on their farms should be removed willingly or by force, either to Bayamo or Jiguani. In May two important landings were made in aid of the insurgents: one under Rafael Quesada, in Camaguey, of men, arms, and ammunition from the steamer Salvador; the other under Gen. Thomas Jordan, a graduate of West Point and an ex-officer of the confederate service, at Mayari, of 175 officers and men, arms and ammunition for 2,600 men, and 10 pieces of artillery, from the steamer Perit. The former reached the interior without resistance; the latter was attacked at Canalito and again at El Ramon, but repulsed the enemy and reached his destination. The command of the army of the Oriente was at once assigned to Gen. Jordan. Before the close of the year Gen. Quesada, having demanded extraordinary powers, was deposed by congress, and Gen. Jordan appointed commander-in-chief. On Jan. 1, 1870, the latter defeated a Spanish force under Gen. Puello at Las Minas de Guaimaro. In August of the same year the United States government offered to Spain their good offices for a settlement of the strife.
Terms for the cession of the island to the Cubans were proposed by Mr. Fish, the United States secretary of state; but Spain declined the offer. The volunteers having in July expelled Capt. Gen. Dulce, Gen. Caballero de Rodas was sent from Spain to replace him, together with a reenforcement of 30,000 men. In December De Rodas was superseded by Valmaseda at the dictation of the volunteers. On Nov. 27, 1871, eight medical students were condemned by a court martial of volunteers for alleged desecration of the grave of a Spanish editor, and shot. In December Valmaseda issued a proclamation giving notice that every insurgent taken after Jan. 15,1872, would be shot, and all surrendering after that date be sentenced to perpetual imprisonment. In 1872 Valmaseda was replaced ad interim by Ceballos, and in 1873 definitively succeeded by Gen. Pieltain, who in July, 1873, sent to President Cespedes to offer peace on condition that Cuba should remain a state of the Spanish republic; but the offer was de-clined. In November, 1873, Gen. Pieltain was superseded by Gen. Jovellar; and in December Cespedes was deposed from the presidency of the Cuban republic and succeeded by Salvador Cisneros. There have been sent to Cuba from Spain since October, 1868, 80,000 soldiers, of whom not more than 12,000 survive.
According to official reports forwarded from Madrid by the United States minister, 13,600 Cubans had been killed in battle up to August, 1872, besides 43,500 prisoners whom the Spanish minister admitted to have been put to death. In the first three years of the war, up to October, 1871, Spain had expended, according to official statements, $70,339,658 70. No authentic statement has been made since.
 
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