We must not only separate our sentences, but must also make use of whatever marks will help us so to group the words within a sentence that they will be most readily understood.1 Of such marks the most important are the comma, the colon, and the semicolon.

We shall consider first the comma, which is the slightest mark of separation that may be put between words.

VI. The comma sets of expressions obviously parenthetical, including words, phrases,2 or clauses used in apposition.

You can see, I think, and we can hear perfectly. I caught a glimpse of Edith, his sister.

Note. The appositive words, "his sister," have no close grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. If, however, we say, "His sister Edith came yesterday," the connection between the noun and its appositive is too close for a comma to come between them.

VII. When a dependent clause precedes the main clause, a comma should separate the two. When a dependent clause follows the main clause, the comma is frequently unnecessary. In either position the dependent clause is often too closely connected with the rest of the sentence, or is too short, to require the comma.

If you knew him, you would like him. I will come when you say.

Before the doctor had time to collect himself or to heed the warning given him, his horse bolted.

Usually a comma is unnecessary between and and if, but and when, and all similar combinations of coordinate and subordinate conjunctions.

Mr. Burns, the detective, spoke for three hours, and when he sat down, his audience gave him a tremendous ovation.

1 The plan of marking the end of the sentence first is only a temporary device. As soon as we can trust ourselves to mark the end of the sentence, we should form the habit of inserting the other marks while writing the sentence.

2 For a definition of a phrase, see section 102.

John fell down the cellar stairs, but when the doctor examined him, he found no bones broken.

The pupil who studies faithfully, even if he is not brilliant, is likely to succeed.

VIII. A relative clause which is explanatory, or gives an additional thought, should be set of by commas. But a relative clause which is restrictive - which limits the meaning of the antecedent - is too closely connected with it to be separated by a comma.

The older brother, whom you have met, was here. The brother whom you have met was here yesterday.

IX. The comma sets apart words used in direct address.

John, your mother is calling you.

Hearken, Phaeacian captains and councilors, and let me tell you what the heart within me bids.

X. The comma usually separates two coordinate clauses which are connected by "and," "but," "or."

Mary ran up the road, but John reached the house first.

The tavern was much frequented by the gallants of the reign of Elizabeth, and it was looked into now and then by the wits of Charles the Second's reign.

XI. The comma sometimes sets apart introductory expressions which are not closely related to the rest of the sentence.

Well, you may be right.

In the first place, a student is not necessarily a scholar. By the way, I hear that William has been promoted. On the one hand,. . .; on the other,...

XII. The comma sets apart the case absolute.

The time having come, he called the meeting to order.

XIII. The comma sets apart words, phrases, or clauses in the same construction in a series.

He sells dry goods, groceries, hardware, and drugs. He is an honest, upright man.

Note. When "and" could not be substituted for the comma in a sentence like the last, the comma should be omitted. For example:

His horse was a big black thoroughbred.

XIV. In a series of words or phrases the comma should be inserted before the "and" which connects the last two members of the series. Some writers omit it, but such an omission might cause an awkward sentence if not a misunderstanding. For instance, in the following sentence an omission of the last comma would mean that the same dress was partly red and partly blue.

Her dresses were black, white, red, and blue.

XV. The comma sets apart words or phrases in pairs.

Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote.

XVI. The comma takes the place of omitted words.

1. It frequently takes the place of an omitted verb.

The first train was an hour late; the second, thirty minutes; and the third, ten minutes. John is the elder son; Charles, the younger.

2. It takes the place of omitted words in the date and the address of a letter.

Exeter, N.H.,

April 5, 1905.

Mr. J. A. Walker,

Melrose, Mass.

XVII. The comma is used to set apart a short quotation or an expression similar to a quotation. Before a long quotation the colon is used (see sect. 38).

I heard him say, "A soft answer turneth away wrath." "I hope you will come soon," was his reply. What I wish to know is, When did you see him ?

Note 1. This rule does not mean that a comma must always be used before quotation marks.

I have enjoyed reading "The Man Without a Country."

Note 2. Of course the comma is not used with an exclamation point or an interrogation point.

"Follow me!" he shouted.

"Are you coming?" was all he said.

XVIII. Commas separate from the rest of the sentence words that come between the parts of a quotation.

"Come early," he said, "or not at all."

XIX. The salutation in a familiar letter may be followed by the comma.

Dear John,

Come to-night if you possibly can.

Exercises

101. Be ready to explain the following expressions in section 36, and any others that require explanation: (1) obviously parenthetical; (2) apposition (see sects. 71,3 and 72,4); (3) phrase (see sect. 102); (4) clause (see sects. 31 and 103); (5) dependent clause (see sect. 103); (6) relative clause (see example in sect. 78); (7) direct address (see sect. 71, 4); (8) case absolute (see sect. 71, 5); (9) the same construction.

102. Point out two rules in section 36 that contain in themselves illustrations of their own use.

103. Account for every comma in the following passage:

A college stands for learning, for culture, and for power; in particular, it stands for the recognition of an aim higher than money getting. It is a place where our young men shall see visions; where even the idlest and lowest man of all must catch glimpses of ideals which, if, he could see them steadily, would transfigure life. The Bachelor of Arts is seldom, on his Commencement Day, a scholar either polished or profound; but he may be, in the full sense of the word, a man.

104. Be prepared to punctuate from dictation the following:

Why should the democracy give its higher education, even so far as the high school, to those who are not eager to earn their special advantage, as every prize of life ought to be earned, by hard work, fidelity, and worthy character?

106. In copying the following sentences, insert commas wherever they are useful:

1. Wild sorrel has an agreeable sour shivery flavor.

2. Do you remember in "The Compleat Angler" a remark which Izaak Walton quotes from a certain "Doctor Boteler" about strawberries? "Doubtless" said that wise old man "God could have made a better berry but doubtless God never did"

3. I made a little journey into the Doone Country once just to see that brook and to fish in it. The stream looked smaller and the water-slide less terrible than they seemed in the book.

4. "Our first essay" says he "was along a mountain brook among the highlands of the Hudson. . . . Sometimes it would brawl and fret along a ravine in the matted shade of a forest filling it with murmurs; and after this termagant career would steal forth into open day with the most placid demure face imaginable; as I have seen some pestilent shrew of a housewife after filling her home with uproar and ill-humor."

106. Write a theme on any subject you please. If you like, you may tell what happened while you were waiting for something to begin - a game, concert, or lecture. Pay special attention to the uses of the comma.

107. In class, act as examiner of your own theme, answering the questions in Exercise 100, and consider in addition the use of the comma.