The older tendency was to humanize animal behavior, to apply crudely, and with prejudice, types of conduct that arise from awareness of motive and process and goal to the limited and differently oriented capacities of animals. The fallacy of that procedure has become obvious. The reverse approach constitutes the distinctive merit of the behavioristic position. Thorndike (about 1890) formulated experimental methods appropriate to the animal problem; Lloyd Morgan had previously exposed the weakness of the humanistic approach; Loeb introduced the mechanistic concept, perhaps too rigidly; Jennings showed the vari 1 A concise history of the stages by which animal lore, from ancient times to our own, became a branch of scientific psychology, is presented in a convenient form by C. J. Warden,"A Short Outline of Comparative Psychology," W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 1927.

ability of responses even in the lowest organisms; Watson developed the technique of record and analysis; Holmes gave the mental behavior its proper place in the zoological setting; Yerkes gave the subject the most comprehensive interpretation; the Gestaltists, notably Kohler, demonstrated the overlapping stages of human and animal performance. None the less, as Yerkes emphasizes, the naturalistic interpretation that studies animals in their native habitat and records their native solutions of problems, free from human guidance, furnishes a major clue. Experiment may be too refined and too artificial; a broad behaviorism includes both.

The ancient problems thus appear in transformed aspect. The distinction between instinct and reason loses its rigidity; in all cases we deal with behavior patterns. Animal learning proceeds by trial and error; the unlearned factors in response are instinctive. Instinctive trends are modified by experience, both spontaneously and in response to human training. Behavior, with insight into the relation between means and ends, coming not like "trial and error" with slow improvement and correction but with the sudden abandonment of an old method and an adoption (after reflection) of a new one, appears clearly in the more intelligent specimens of the anthropoid apes - perhaps not elsewhere. The interplay of heredity and environment appears more clearly. There is in most animal, as well as human, behavior "conditioning" in the more liberal sense and equally "dispositioning." Their variations make way for the problem of individual differences which, in the human setting, becomes paramount.

Child psychology has a different set of antecedents. It goes back to Pestalozzi and Froebel and the "kindergarten" movement - all with a strong interest in directing the earliest educational procedures. Infant life provides the closest approximation to objective conditions and supplies a genetic picture at the earliest stages. Darwin himself was among the early pioneers in writing the "Biography of an Infant" but it was not until the elaborate technique of Gesell that the possibilities of this field were realized. The study of the growth processes is of paramount importance in all the applied arts of guidance. Genetic psychology is still largely in the making; for it includes decline as well as growth; it makes plain the importance of the age factor in all responses. Its many implications appear in other connections.

The profound influence of child study - root and stem, branch and blossom - derived from the psychological study of childhood and the unfolding process, can hardly be included, or yet omitted, from this survey. It has made the movement called "progressive education," which recognizes the freedom and spontaneity of the stages of child growth, which places emphasis upon emotional development, which makes central the learning to live with other people, by way of character growth and normal social reactions. The specifically mental development takes its proper place. Discipline has acquired a newer and a richer meaning. The problems of adolescence are recognized; abnormal developments are avoided. Parental guidance assumes new aspects. Parallel with this insight is the specific study of the educational procedures; for obviously the equipment for the practical life in the actual environment of the human scene is indispensable in the formative period. The analysis of the speech processes has made great strides. Such an impediment as stuttering is realized as a personality defect even more than as a lack of coordination. Educational psychology takes its place among the important applications of psychological principles. The social aspect of the child in the family life has been freed from the too drastic intrusions of tradition and moralized methods negligent of the complex relations of character growth. The place of sex enlightenment and the relations of the sexes at all stages is frankly faced. The nursery school has appeared as a direct expression of the foundation of control upon natural development. Learning by doing, creative exercises at all stages, self-government, protection of the child's spontaneity, the avoidance of too much regimentation, the stimulation of individual aptitudes, all enter into the program.

It becomes apparent that modern psychology has assumed its present status by a composite set of advancements, partly reflecting those of the general story of science, with its enthronement of logical procedure and refinement of experimental and observational technique, but particularly dependent upon the data and concepts of the collateral life sciences - biology, physiology, neurology. It has been equally enriched by the clinical sciences of medicine, specifically of psychiatry. Mental abnormalities are of profound significance for normal psychology; they do not stand apart from but are framed in a single picture of the mental life. The extreme departures, whether remediable or due to original inadequacy, have naturally claimed the attention of the psychiatrist. But in this reference psychology has given even more than it has received; for within the twentieth century - with sporadic roots in earlier studies - psychiatry has become psychological. No estrangement seems to our modern insight so illogical as that of the mind in health and the mind in disorder; no rapprochement has been more helpful to both parties in the scientific league of mental studies. The data of abnormal psychology have always been available, even insistent; the concepts necessary to their understanding were lacking.