There are five European varieties of this wood, which grows principally in Western Europe.

The most common kind in England is the rough-leafed elm (Ulmus campestris).

The elm, as may be seen from the general appearance of the growing tree, has very twisted fibres, rendering it liable to warp and twist.

The spring wood is very porous, while the autumn wood is hard and darker in colour.

The prevailing shade is a reddish-brown tint, but the sap-wood is noticeable as being much paler in colour than the heart-wood, and in it the redness of the pores is noticeable by contrast.

The medullary rays are fine, but distinct and numerous.

Owing to its liability to twist, this wood is not much used for fine work, but by reason of its great strength and durability, especially under water, where its decay seems almost impossible, it is much used for the piles of piers, bridges, etc.

A peculiarity of this timber is that the sap-wood is equally as durable as the heart-wood. Like most timber, however, it is more inclined to rot when exposed alternately to wet and dry conditions. Nevertheless, it is much used for boat-building, and heavy out-of-door construction, where strength is wanted.

It is cheap, plentiful, and enormously strong.

Though so liable to twist, even in large baulks, it is remarkably free from shakes, and as the grain is close and twisted it is difficult to split elm. For the same reason nails and bolts can be driven into it without fear of their loosening.

The Broad-leafed Wych Elm (Ulmus montana) and the Smooth-leafed (Ulmus glabra) are not very common in England. In Scotland and Ireland, however, they are grown in preference to the rough-leafed variety.

These trees are even larger than the rough-leafed elms, and have much straighter fibres.

The Dutch Elm (Ulmus major) is a very inferior variety; in fact, practically worthless for timber.

The Cork-barked Elm (Ulmus suberosa), found in this country, principally in Sussex, is another inferior kind.

Canada Rock Elm (Ulmus racemosa), so called from its being imported principally from Canada, and because it grows well in rocky places, is very different in many ways to the European varieties.

It is usually straight grained, in marked contrast to the rough-leafed elm.

The annual rings are close and regular, and of a brown colour. Inferior specimens have dark, irregular annual rings, and the sap-wood is more liable to decay than the heart-wood. This timber, though it does not twist so much as the common elm, loses a great deal of its volume in seasoning, and is very apt to shakes and warping.

Beech (Fagus) is found in the temperate climates of the Northern Hemisphere, and in Australia also, but its characteristics vary in different countries.

The colour is a whitish-brown of various shades, the darkest being known as black beech, and the lightest as white.

The annual ring is fairly compact, the difference between the spring and autumn wood not being very marked.

The medullary rays are very numerous and distinct, and as a consequence beech is easily cleft.

Beech is apt to become 'burred,' as the white doaty spots which appear on its surface are called, when exposed to alternate wet and dry.

It is, therefore, hardly ever used for external work, except entirely under water, but, owing to its reliability and toughness, is used a good deal in chair-making and other work exposed only to a dry atmosphere.

Beech is very liable to warping or twisting, unless seasoned by desiccation or steaming, but when thoroughly seasoned is of great service where toughness, smoothness, and durability are required.

This timber is liable to the attack of worms, and, owing to a strong acid contained in it, metal fastenings are rapidly corroded.