Russo-Turkish Wars. Of the many wars between the Muscovite and Mohammedan powers, we cite the two latest: (1) The first arose from a demand on the part of Nicholas, the Czar of Russia, of a protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The Sultan refused the demand, and appealed to his allies. Russia declared war against Turkey, November 1, 1853. England and France declared war against Russia, March 27, 28, 1854. Sardinia joined the allies January 26, 1855. Among the great battles of this war were Alma (September 20,1854),Balaclava(October 25, 1854), during which occurred the memorable "Charge of the Six Hundred." Inkerman (November 5, 1854), Tchernaya (August 16, 1855), in all of which the Russians were defeated. The great event of the war was the siege of Sebastopol (commenced October 17, 1854), which fell September 8, 1855. The war which is usually termed the Crimean war, was ended by the treaty of peace concluded at Paris, March 30, 1856. One of the articles of this treaty was that the Christians of Turkey, without any preference to Russia, should have the protection of all the Powers concerned in the treaty. (2) The second war arose (1877-8; from substantially the same cause as the war of 1853-6, viz., the desire of Russia to protect the Greek Christians of Turkey. By a protocol of March 31, 1877, the Great Powers agreed to see the promised reforms of Turkey carried out.

This protocol was repudiated by Turkey, and war was declared by Russia against Turkey, April 24. Among the more prominent events of this war were General Gourko's march through the Balkans (July 13), his defeat by Suleiman Pasha at Eski Sagra (July 30), and Suleiman Pasha's desperate, but fruitless, attempt to gain the Schipka Pass held by General Gourko; the fall of Kars (November 18), and of Plevna (December 10), and Suleiman Pasha's defeat by Skobeloff and Radetsky at Senova (January 9, 1878), the battle which virtually ended the war. Treaty of San Stefano (March 3), modified by treaty of Berlin (July 13), by which Bulgaria was created an automatic and tributary principality, Servia and Roumania were declared independent, and Bosnia and Herzegovina were ordered to be occupied and administered by Austria.

ZuLu War (1879). Cetewayo, king of Zululand, became embroiled with the British on the annexation by the latter of the Transvaal, and the British, under Lord Chelmsford, crossed the Tugela, and entered Zululand (January 12). They suffered a terrible reverse at Isandhlwana (January 22), with a loss of eight hundred men, and in spite of the heroic defence of Rorke's Drift (January 22), had to retreat. Eventually reinforcements arrived, and the Zulus were defeated at Ginghilono (April 2), and Ulundi (July 4). Cetewayo was captured (August 28), and a despatch from Sir Garnet Wolseley (September 3), announced the end of the war. Cetewayo died (February 8, 1884), the New Republic was formed by a party of Transvaal Boers (1886-87), and the annexation of the remainder of Zululand as a British possession was proclaimed (June 21, 1887). Trouble subsequently arose, and several Zulu chiefs were convicted of high treason and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment (1888-9). Towards the end of 1891, the resolution of the colonial authorities to impose Zibebu as chief upon the northern tribes, was protested against by Miss Colenso as likely to lead to further troubles in Zulu-land.

Franco-German War. The friction between France and Prussia, arising from the proposed cession of Luxembourg, became accentuated by the demand of France that the Crown of Spain, offered (1870) to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, should not be accepted by that Prince. On the refusal of Prussia to accede to this request, war was declared by France (July 19, 1870). The Prussian forces, about 640,000 strong, in which were associated the states of the North and South German Confederation, were divided into four armies, the first, that of the North, commanded by Gen. Vogel von Falkenstein; the second, that of the Centre, commanded by Gen. Steinmetz; the third, that of the Right, under Prince Frederick Charles; and the fourth, that of the Left, led by the Crown Prince, the King (William) of Prussia being commander-in-chief, with Gen. Von Moltke as head of the Staff. The whole army was in the highest state of preparation and efficiency. The French army, about 300,000 strong, on the other hand, badly organized and practically unprepared for the contest, was formed into six army corps, respectively commanded by Generals Frossard, De Failly, Bazaine, MacMahon, Lad-nierault and Marshal Canrobert. The Emperor, nominally commander-in-chief, had as his second in command, General Le Boeuf, to whom, later, Marshal Bazaine succeeded.

The war resulted in an almost unbroken series of successes for the Germans. After victories at Woerth and Forbach (both on August 6), the Germans invested the fortress of Strasburg (August 10 - capitulated September 28), and sat down before Metz, which capitulated (October 27), after the battles of Longueville (August 14), Mars La Tour (August 16), Gravelotte or Rezonville (August 18), and unsuccessful attempts at a sortie by Marshal Bazaine (August 26 and October 6). At Sedan the French under Marshal MacMahon were hopelessly beaten (September 1), and the Emperor surrendered to the Prussian King (September 2), and was deported as prisoner to Wilhelms-hohe (Cassel). At Paris (September 4) the deposition of the Imperial dynasty was declared, and the establishment of a Republic proclaimed by M. Gambetta and other members of the Left in the Legislative Assembly. A government of defence was proclaimed, with General Trochu as President, M. Gambetta as Minister of the Interior, M.Jules Favre (Foreign), General Le Flo (War). The Empress Eugenie fled from Paris (September 4), and settled at Chiselhurst. Negotiations for peace between M. Favre and Count Bismarck ended in failure (September 24), and a proclamation from the Government at Tours was issued calling upon the people "to fight to the bitter end." The siege of Paris was commenced by the Germans (September 15), and five days later the troops at Versailles surrendered, and the Crown Prince of Prussia occupied the place.

A levee en masse of all under twenty-five years of age was ordered by the government (September 23), and all Frenchmen between twenty and twenty-five years were prohibited (September 26) leaving France, those between twenty-one and forty years being organized as a national garde mobile. M. Gambetta, escaping by means of a balloon from the beleagured city (October 7), was appointed by the government at Tours Minister of War. An attempt on the part of the Red Republicans at Paris, headed by Blanqui, Ledru-Rollin and others, to establish a Commune in that city, was successfully defeated (October 14). The news of the capitulation of Metz caused riots at Paris (October 31). As the result of a plebiscite to confirm the powers of the Government of Defence, the votes recorded were 557,976 for, 62,638 against. The successes of the German arms continued, the army of the Loire was defeated by the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg (November 17), the fortresses of Verdun (November 8) and Thionville (November 27) capitulated.

The army of the Loire under General Chanzy was again attacked and defeated at Beaugency (December 8). After various battles, the army of the Loire, fighting and retreating, was defeated by Prince Frederick Charles at Le Mans (January 11, 1871), and near Vosges (January 15-16). The army under General de Paladines, entrenched at Orleans, suffered defeat by Prince Frederick Charles (December 4), and Orleans surrendered, Rouen being two days later occupied by General Manteuffel, who engaged the army of the North under General Faidherbe at Point & Noyelles (December 23), and at Bapaume (January 2-3, 1871), the French retreating in each case. General Bour-baki was also defeated by the German general Von Werder, near Belfort (January 15-17), and General Von Goeben gained a victory over the French under Faidherbe at St. Quentin (January 19). After gallant, but unsuccessful sorties from Paris by Generals Trochu and Ducrot (November 20 and January 21), the city, which had been bombarded, capitulated (January 28). Following the fall of Paris, Gen. Bourbaki's army was defeated (January 30-February 1) by the Germans under General Manteuffel, and driven across the frontier into Switzerland, The fortress of Belfort capitulated (February 16) with military honors after a long defence.

An armistice took place preparatory to negotiations for peace. On the resignation of M. Gambetta a National Assembly was elected (February 8) of which M. Grevy was chosen president, M. Thiers becoming head of the executive power. The French Government was recognized by the chief European powers (February 18), and (February 26) preliminaries of peace were signed by MM. Thiers and Favre and fifteen delegates of the National Assembly on the part of France, and Count Bismarck on the part of Germany. By this France was to cede certain parts of Lorraine, including Metz and Thionville and Alsace, excluding Belfort. In addition, five milliards of francs ($1,000,000,000) were to be paid as war indemnity to Germany; certain departments to be occupied by German troops until this was fully discharged. The treaty, signed February 26, was accepted by the National Assembly sitting at Bordeaux (March 1), by 546 votes to 107, at the some time unanimously confirming the fall of the Empire. The Germans after occupying Paris for forty-eight hours (March 1-3), withdrew from Versailles (March 12). A Peace Conference met at Brussels (March 28), and at Frankfort a definite treaty of peace was signed (May 10), and ratified by the French Assembly (May 21). The last instalment of the indemnity was paid September 5, 1873, and the last of the German troops quitted French soil (September 16). The Red Republicans under the lead of Blanqui, Gustav Flourens and Felix Pyat rose in revolt (March 18, 1871) against the Government, held Paris and established the Commune, which was not suppressed until the insurgents had committed many outrages and destroyed much property, after holding possession of Paris until May 28, when the troops under Marshal MacMahon captured the city; some eight hundred troops were killed, the Communist forces losing fifty thousand.

One-fourth of Paris was destroyed, the loss to property being estimated at $160,000,000. Great numbers of the Communists were subsequently tried, some executed, and the remainder transported.