Towards the end of the eighteenth century there was a great development of gymnastic activity in Germany, but practically only in educational gymnastics. From 1770, it may be reckoned, many became instrumental in spreading it in schools, till its use became general all over Germany. I remember in this connection the well-known names of Frank, Basedow, Salzmann, Guthsmuths, Viehy, Pestalozzi, Jahn, Eiselen, Massmann, Lorinser, Spiess, and others whose work belongs partly to our own century. In literature Guthsmuths is the best known of the German authors, and one comes across his work, "Die Gymnastik der Jugend" (Schnepfenthal, 1793), here and there in book collections. One notices markedly the influence of the ancient writers and also of Friedrich Hoffmann. Guthsmuths speaks in detail and intelligently of some of the effects of gymnastics, emphasises the necessity for developing the different muscle groups harmoniously, and mentions active and passive movements. In the end of his work he shows the ease with which one may, with the help of an anatomical atlas and a skilful doctor, work out a scientific gymnastic system, and gives the outline of such a system. Although the real value of massage was recognised by many long before this time, it seems to have lain outside Guthsmuths' thought and experience.

It may be appropriate to pause here to remind ourselves of the great activity of practical and theoretical medico-mechanics, both in regard to gymnastics and massage, towards the end of the eighteenth century, and especially to remember that when Tissot wrote his famous work in 1780 the so-called Swedish medical gymnastics did not exist, and that Per Henrik Ling, who later rendered his fatherland and all mankind such great (though uncritically and ignorantly estimated) service in this direction, was then only four years old.

Meanwhile we must remember that massage, in the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries, was nowhere deeply rooted either in England or on the continent of Europe. In France especially, although it was practised by several doctors prominently represented in literature, it seems, after a rise of rather short duration in the end of the eighteenth century, to have sunk into discredit or been forgotten in the beginning of the nineteenth. For example, Londe ("Gymnastique Medicale," Paris, 1820, pp. 249 - 255) speaks of "frictions et onctions, le massage et le massement," disapproves of "onctions," and mentions frictions as "useful for people who take no exercise, also in some diseases," of which, however, not a word is said. They arc especially good for people "who live in northern, marshy countries, and for those weakly children with fair hair, blue eyes and large heavy abdomen, who are so sluggish physically and intellectually." He further thinks he has heard of massage in Tahiti, considers it tonic, but accuses it of encouraging sensual sensations. This is amusing, but it is still more amusing that on this account Hunerfauth, in his " Handbuch der Massage," gives as his verdict that Londe has written of massage that it is "ziemlich erschopfend."

Swedish traditions on mechano-therapy begin with Per Henrik Ling (1776 - 1839). Ling made his appearance as early as 1805 as a gymnastic and fencing teacher in Lund; in 1813 he founded the "Central Institute of Gymnastics" in Stockholm and remained a teacher there until his death. His chief work, "On the General Principles of Gymnastics," came out first in 1840 after his death. Since he is much talked of but really very little known, and since, as a fellow-countryman, he specially interests the readers of the Swedish edition of this work, I will discuss somewhat in detail the significance of his work in regard to mechanotherapy.

The Ling system of gymnastics, in contrast to the German system, was chiefly therapeutic ("medical gymnastics"), although Ling to a great extent looked after the interests of educational gymnastics. He arranged a great many movements, which, according to ancient custom, he divided into passive, active and duplicated. It is less known, but of more interest to us and a greater service on Ling's part, that he was familiar with massage, the manipulations of which (" friction, hacking, pinching, squeezing, kneading," l.c., p. 581) he classes as passive gymnastic movements. Massage forms a very important part-of the Ling system of "medical gymnastics" and is used in many forms. Ling mentions (p. 530) neck massage, which he recommends for headache and giddiness, was familiar with "abdominal kneading," and made use of both local and general massage with almost the same technique as is now used by Swedish doctors and by all the so-called Mezger's school. Leaving out the noisy advertising and "puffing" of Swedish gymnastics by Ling's followers, it was chiefly massage which gained for this form of therapy the prestige it has won. Moreover, among the workers trained by the Central and other institutes, massage forms a more important and essential part of their work, both for themselves and their patients, than gymnastics. It is worth noting that Ling himself included massage manipulations among passive gymnastic movements, and that the Swedish gymnasts, partly in reverence for their idol, partly from a practical motive, have done their utmost to eradicate the term "massage" and to represent the use of movable pressure on the soft parts as a special part of gymnastics.

By his own practical work and also by his own creation, the "Central Institute of Gymnastics" (notwithstanding its later vagaries), Ling exercised a great influence on the position of massage and medical gymnastics in and beyond Sweden.

At the same time, he has performed a very important life work by contributing in a high degree to the development of Swedish sport. This he did by educational gymnastics, and by different exercises ("the horse," "the boom," "the ropes," fencing).

And lastly I would lay stress on a very great service Ling rendered. He himself clearly saw and often expressed his opinion (as I and others have heard from conversation with the well-known Major Thure Brandt) on the necessity of his treatment being under the control of doctors. In contrast to many of his followers, he was an unpretentious worker at mechano-therapy, devoted to his life's work and entirely opposed to advertisement, "business," and the seeking of a monopoly.