In this chapter I (The History Of Hypnotism) shall treat of the so-called phenomena of occultism, which, notwithstanding the absence of all internal affinity, are constantly mentioned in connection with hypnotism, the connection being for the most part merely determined by their historic development. Though I for my own part consider the deductions drawn from such observations to be inexact, I am yet of opinion that they demand unprejudiced investigation, all the more because of the greater service which by a scientific refutation we may render truth, than by simply dismissing the question on it priori grounds. I am strengthened in my conviction of the expediency of investigating these phenomena by my further belief that this course alone will afford us the means of successfully opposing the uncritical occultism of the present day. It cannot be denied that the occultic movement has now become very widespread throughout the civilized world; no less in America than in Europe, and in Protestant as much as in Catholic countries; to the same extent among nations accounted liberal, such as England and the United States, as among those which, like Russia, still seem to belong to the Middle Ages; everywhere occultism has been steadily gaining ground within recent years.

Further, this interest pervades the most widely differing strata of society. Among the aristocracy of birth, in the first place, we find it largely represented. Occultic, and more especially spiritistic tendencies extend to the highest circles, and now - as under King Frederick-William II. and the Emperor Napoleon III., for instance - find at many of the Courts of Europe powerful support. Next, we must mention the plutocracy, in this" as in so much else a close imitator of the aristocrat nobility. Let it not be thought, however, that leanings to occultism are confined to these upper ranks of society. On the contrary, a host of small officials, schoolmasters, and tradespeople are to be met in its camp, whose forces are, in a word, recruited among all social classes. It is a noteworthy circumstance that some really eminent scholars may be found among them. Just for this reason I advocate careful scrutiny of the problems and exposure of all sources of error. The names of these individual men of learning being constantly invoked by other occultists as a guarantee of their testimony, this circumstance, together with the natural bent of mankind to accept authority in matters of belief, constitutes a very real danger.

The fact is perpetually overlooked that a man may be an authority in his own sphere without having the slightest claim to be considered an expert in any other, and that the foremost scientists, should they momentarily betake themselves outside their special department, are often utterly at a loss how to avail themselves of methods of research so different to those employed in their own daily work. Mere superficial observation does not take this diversity of method at all into account. Even the scientists in question are apt to be themselves completely unaware of having entered a foreign domain. In reality, however, their ordinary methods may differ fundamentally from those which they are suddenly called upon to apply. A few examples will serve. Lombroso, in dealing with Eusapia Palladino, fancied himself specially qualified for the detection of imposture, on account of the experiences concerning simulation which his work as a psychiatrist led him daily to collect. As if the trickery of spiritistic mediums had anything in common with the simulation of persons supposed to be mentally afflicted. With regard to such tricks, conjurers are the proper experts, not alienists. The same may be alleged agaiost Wallace, who has affirmed the trustworthiness of spiritistic phenomena.

Specially convincing appeared to him the experiment of a certain Mrs. Marshall, in which a blank sheet of paper placed under a table showed, when withdrawn, inscribed upon it the name of a person with whom the medium was supposed to be wholly unacquainted. It was the impossibility of producing the writing mechanically which at the time chiefly impressed Wallace. And yet even here it may be objected that Wallace's statement that a blank sheet of paper was laid under the table by no means suffices to prove that it had not already been written on. The gentlemen who occupy themselves with these phenomena should only take the trouble to acquire a little of the prestidigitator's art, and they would soon find out into what an entirely unknown world they have stepped.

Stumpf, too, whose report concerning the horse Clever Hans I discussed on page 457, must be reckoned in this category. I reproduced (page 455) this document. It admitted of a two-fold interpretation: either, in the first place, that the horse really did solve most complicated arithmetical problems, that it knew the clock, recognized different people from their photographs; in a word, gave proof of real intelligence, of a mental proficiency which Stumpf described as having been acquired by something akin to the system of instruction at an elementary school. One loop-hole was left - the statement admitting the possibility of occult agency, of a telepathic influence being exerted upon the horse. Stumpf thought himself, as a psychologist, necessarily an expert in the investigation, whilst in reality the method of inquiry requisite here totally differed from any that he was accustomed to follow. Had he but considered the matter objectively from the first, had he but once carefully read through any single piece of the evidence drawn up, not from the point of view of the scientist, but with a man's sound common-sense, he must at once have recognized his error.

Must he not have thought it strange that the horse, then only eight years old, should already know more than a child of the same age; that it appeared, in fact, to have mastered the whole German language, which human beings spend long years in acquiring ? A current joke of the time was that the horse stood on the level of a good pupil in the fifth class of a German grammar-school - one about to be removed to the fourth. In reality, however, we should have to place the animal on a still higher stage, - unless we accept the theory of a very grave delusion. A protocol placed at my disposal contains, for instance, the following questions: - "Look, Hans, there is the general you know so well; what are the colours of the order he is wearing? tell us the first!" "Hans, a silver five-mark piece is being shown you; how many marks are there in the next smaller silver coin?" Many such questions were put to the horse and correctly answered. If we take further into consideration that it recognized melodies, distinguished one chord from another, could extract roots or square numbers, in a word, solve quite complicated arithmetical problems - remembering all this, it seems impossible that Stumpf should not see the necessity of proceeding with the very greatest caution before putting his name to such a report.