The various phenomena of hypnosis have also been observed in normal waking life, and this makes a comparison of the hypnotic states with other abnormal states considerably more difficult. For example, a symptom which A. shows in hypnosis he does not show in his normal state; but it may be observed in B.'s normal waking life. People differ greatly in their susceptibility to suggestion in waking life; I have spoken (p. 64) of suggestions in waking life from which hypnosis cannot be concluded. Besides which, a number of phenomena of .suggestion, which are generally regarded as a peculiarity of hypnosis, have been found in waking life. Braid, the American electro-biologists, Herzog (1853), Heidenhain, Berger, Richet, Le>y, Bernheim, Beaunis, Liegeois, and Forel are among those who have made observations in this field.

These phenomena are shown in waking life by subjects who have been hypnotized as well as by those who have not. Contractures, paralyses, dumbness, and other kinds of motor disturbances can be induced by suggestion in the waking state. According to some authors, it is even possible to induce . hallucinations without hypnosis.

Nevertheless, many of the experiments, and particularly the conclusions drawn from them, seem to me to have two defects. Those who talk of suggestions in the waking state (suggestions a veille) forget, first, that sleep is by no means always indispensable for many hypnotic suggestions. Authors often confuse hypnosis with sleep. We have seen that the light hypnotic stages do not much resemble sleep; consequently, we must not conclude that a state of contracture, etc., is, or is not a hypnosis because it resembles sleep or not. The second point which these authors generally overlook is this: they think that hypnosis is excluded in these cases of waking suggestion, because none of the usual methods of inducing hypnosis have been used. But the methods are not absolutely necessary for the induction of hypnosis. We cannot make the question, whether hypnosis is present or not, depend upon the means employed; we must always consider the state and its symptoms separately. For if we take a certain degree of suggestibility, loss of memory, etc., for a symptom of hypnosis, nothing remains but to regard as hypnoses many states which are frequently described as suggestions without hypnosis.

The chief phenomenon of hypnosis is, as we see, that a certain accepted idea has a tendency to lead to a movement or a delusion of the senses, etc. We have further seen that the experimenter can change the subject's dominant idea very quickly - i.e., he can suggest one thing quickly after another. If, then, we can do the same without apparently previous appearance of hypnosis, we must call the state a hypnosis all the same, particularly if there is subsequent loss of memory.

In reality, a hypnosigenic method is employed, because in such experiments the subject generally remembers an earlier hypnosis, and the idea of hypnosis is enough to induce it. Therefore we often need only to repeat a suggestion made in an earlier hypnosis to cause a new one (Bentivegni, Marin).

The fact that paralyses, contractures, etc., can be quickly produced by suggestion in this new hypnosis shows that it is as real as the first. In the deeper states, when delusions of sense can be induced, loss of memory usually follows. The changed expression of the subject's face also shows there is hypnosis. Finally, the presence of a real hypnosis is proved in many cases by the rapport between subject and experimenter.

For the reasons above mentioned, I think we should call many of these states true hypnoses, not suggestions without hypnosis. The school of Nancy, and particularly Liegeois.and Beaunis, have only partially acknowledged this. They thought many of these states were intermediate forms between hypnosis and waking, which they identified with the veille somnambulique described above (p. 167).

It must not, of course, be concluded from what has been said that all these suggestions only succeed in hypnosis. I am far from saying that. My explanation aims only at pointing out that there may really be hypnosis in the so-called suggestions a veille, though none of the usual methods (e.g., those of the Nancy school) have been employed to bring it on. Moreover, we should always endeavour to prevent suggestions in waking life, and especially to make delusions of the senses impossible.

It is often difficult to decide whether there is hypnosis or not, because the question is sometimes more one of subjective perception than of objective proof. I may refer here to a case of Carpenter's mentioned by Finlay. A gentleman placed his hands on the table, and for half a minute directed his attention to them. When the suggestion was made to him, in decided tones, that he could not remove his hands, he was in fact unable to do so. I have frequently observed the same thing, especially after hypnotic exhibitions. I have, for instance, seen inability to move a limb, to withdraw the outstretched tongue, or to close the mouth. New suggestions, however, only succeed after the attention has been drawn to them for some time.

There are even delusions of the senses without hypnosis, sleep, or mental disorder, when circumstances influence the mind in a particular way. The common hallucination of smell is an example. People often imagine that they still smell things which have been removed. Delusions of sight are just as common. Many people have taken trees for men when walking through a wood in the twilight. Goethe's self-induced hallucinations of sight are well known. Delbceuf also describes a waking hallucination of sight; he thought he saw his dead mother, but corrected his impression by reason. If there are even delusions of the senses without hypnosis, it is evidently difficult to argue the presence of hypnosis from a single symptom.

The following are the chief points to be considered in settling the question whether a suggestion is made in hypnosis or not: - i. Of what kind are the suggestions? Are they of such a kind that they rarely occur normally? 2. After one suggestion has succeeded, can other suggestions be made as quickly as in hypnosis, or is a long preparation necessary for each suggestion ? The quick success of the following suggestion would be in favour of hypnosis. 3. After the suggestion has succeeded, can the subject prevent a further suggestion by an act of will, or not? If he cannot, it favours the supposition of a hypnotic state. 4. Is there rapport? That is, can the subject be influenced by only one person, or by anybody? Rapport favours hypnosis. 5. Are there bodily symptoms of hypnosis? 6. Are the events subsequently forgotten? Loss of memory also favours the supposition of hypnosis.