Now, it is important to be quite clear as to the meaning of the terms here. If by sex instinct is meant the instinct of reproduction, sex instinct in the narrowest sense, then surely the statement s incorrect. But Dr. Jones, of course, does not use the term sex instinct in that sense; he would undoubtedly give it some broad inclusive interpretation. Now in its broadest sense the sex instinct includes very many elements - the appreciation of beauty of form and colour, of voice tones, of gentleness of disposition, of strength of character, and so on. All these may enter into and strengthen the attraction of one person for a member of the opposite sex. They are not, however, sexual in the limited sense of the word. No doubt sexual selection has helped to establish them in human nature, but their selection implies their pre-existence. They may be as ultimate facts in human nature as is sex-impulse in the restricted sense.

The Sublimation of Sex-impulses.

Definition of Sex.

* Papers on Psycho-Analysis, p. 604.

Hence, when these elements reveal themselves also in art or religion it is unjustifiable to say that these elements are due to sex. Rather we should say that these other activities of art and religion may give satisfaction to (among others) certain specific impulses and desires, for example the desire for beauty, which may also be satisfied at other times in close association with the sex-impulse proper.

So far we have no proof of sublimation, in the strict sense, of the sex instinct through art or religion. There is no proof of "displacement" of the sex-impulse as a whole, when it is repressed, and when consolation is found in art and religion, though there is displacement, in a sense, of certain activities which might work in conjunction with the sex-impulse proper, but which now function only along the lines of art and religion. Thus, at least, there is less to repress than would be the case if all these subsidiary impulses also had to be repressed.

We may, however, go further. We know that feeling and emotion may be transferred from the original object to one closely associated with it, as when the lover develops a sentimental attachment even for his lady's glove. Hence it is always possible that the close association of certain elementary processes, such as those combined in love for another, may lead to a tendency for these to be revived together, for example when an object of beauty can rouse some of them. In this way the energy even of the sex-impulse may be partially involved, and as feeling prompts action the energy of the sex-impulse may then be utilised in other affairs. From this point of view even of orthodox psychology sublimation would seem to be possible, but only in so far as there is close association or resemblance between the normal stimulus of any fundamental instinct and that of action to which sublimation is desired. Take, for example, the instinct of pugnacity. William James urges that, while this instinct cries out for satisfaction in man, yet, instead of letting it out by its natural channel-in Sublimation through Resemblance fighting one's fellow-men - we should satisfy it by enlisting it in the fight for the conquest of nature. The possibility of this, in our view as expressed above, would depend on some resemblance between the felt difficulties in adapting nature to our needs, and the opposition of a fellow human being who rouses our fighting instincts, though the resemblance need not be discriminated. Or consider the boy battling with difficulties in mathematics. Can we enlist the energies concealed in the combative instinct? If it is to be roused, even in part, the situation must be felt in some way as similar to the normal stimulus of pugnacity, and, indeed, it does seem to appear at times when there is competition with other boys. How far this happens, apart from competition with others, seems very uncertain. There certainly seems to be very little correlation between combativeness on the playground in the ordinary sense and persistence and doggedness in intellectual matters, and perhaps this is because it has been, with some, largely "sublimed" to the higher things.

The whole question of sublimation seems to me to be one of the many in which individual differences are an important consideration for the educationist. One element in genius seems to be the power to see analogies and relationships which do not occur to the ordinary man, whose associations take place on more commonplace lines. Is it not possible that a similar difference may have its effect in determining whether sublimation takes place ? In some higher types, and not only among geniuses, there may, for example, be a more delicate perception of resemblance (not perhaps always clearly discriminated) between the various situations which arouse the fighting impulse proper and those which arise when intellectual difficulties are to be fought. In such types sublimation may be possible when it is not possible to all. And this may itself be one of the reasons for the success of some and the failure of others. It may also help to account, by a theory of drainage of nervous energy (similar to that of McDougall), for the fact that moral courage is often strongly developed in persons whose physical courage is slight.

Sublimation and Genius.

We seem at least to be on safe ground in expecting anything like sublimation, in the strict sense, to take place normally only when there is a marked resemblance between the two alternatives, or when a close association can be set up. Possibly, also, we should expect only gradual sublimation in the average individual; having got the interest shifted slightly we may set up new associations and shift it a little further. Such a gradual transference of interest is quite familiar to psychology. Anything beyond, of the nature of a side outlet for an otherwise-to-be-repressed impulse, must be regarded as uncertain, in normal mental life, though in view of the growing evidence as to the mode of working of partially repressed impulses, not improbable. For the evidence grows to the effect that we have all grades of mental traits in the normal, becoming gradually of an extreme type which we call abnormal. We may expect then, in view of this, that even in the normal individual there may take place some sublimation of energy and interest, possibly unrecognised by the individual himself or by observers. It seems that, so far as abnormal cases give us any clue, displacement takes place unconsciously and along lines unrecognisable to ordinary conscious thought, for example in the symbolism of dreams. But it is uncertain how far the same will be the case with normal individuals; and in the present state of knowledge we cannot with any certainty make use of unconscious sublimation as a means a moral education.

There are cases, however, in which the psychology of sublimation, uncertain as it still is, may already be of suggestive value. Take for example, the interesting facts revealed in reports of a recent investigation into juvenile crime in Manchester. It appears that the amount of juvenile delinquency varied inversely, not so much with the rental of the houses of the district concerned, as with the proximity of the district to a public park, where the young people could play. The suggestion is made that the desire of excitement was satisfied by games and sports, and so diverted from criminal adventures.* But is this because a different interest and impulse (towards sport) is substituted for another (towards crime), or because certain specific impulses are deviated? We can no doubt imagine that certain strong impulses may be involved in both, e.g. the craving for excitement or for scope for self-assertion. But one element seems much more strongly concerned in the criminal activities than in games, namely the desire for actual danger in adventure - apart from the commonsense suggestion that the things stolen form some attraction. So the example may only be one of sublimation in the first improper sense of the word mentioned above; that is the specific impulse towards crime is not truly sublimated, but there is substituted for the crime an alternative which occupies time and general energies equally agreeably without the risks of unpleasant consequences. From the practical moral point of view it may not matter which of these two explanations is the right one: for if it is really to be important that there should be sublimation proper, we must suppose that the danger of the lower use of the impulse is removed by its being used on a higher level, and that repression is not likely to take place. Yet on the supposition of mere substitution we may suppose that by neglect the evil impulse may die, sports giving adequate occupation to the youth out of working hours. This process of substitution would be inferior to sublimation only if we suppose that the repression, unconscious or conscious, of a specific impulse leading to crime would have its revenge later unless actually used in some other way, such as in sports or games, though no such thing is proved for normal individuals. The new psychology of the unconscious suggests that this is very possible, and indeed, likely in the case of individuals not quite normal, and youths with criminal propensities should probably be brought under this classification. For this reason, the founder of the George Junior Republic would seem to be on sounder psychological grounds in devising schemes for giving scope to the group spirit, and even to the fighting instinct, of his partially reformed criminal gangs, than in attempting, at first, a complete substitution of quite different activities.*

Sublimation and Moral Education.

* I have only seen a newspaper report of this investigation. I should imagine some correlation would be found between house rent and proximity of parks. But the case will serve at least as an illustration.

For a discussion of the processes involved in a complete substitution, when it does take place, with the entire change of many of the habits of life, which must accompany it, one would have to go fully into the psychology of religion. We can only add that the psychology of conversion does at least show that a gradual process of sublimation is not the only possible method of reform.+

* See W. R. George and L. B. Stone, Citizens Made and Remade, Constable.

+ The problem of sublimation and the general moral aspects of the Freudian psychology are admirably treated by J. C. Flugel in Freudian Mechanisms and Moral Development: Brit. Journ, of Psych., vol. viii.