1. Speech, physiologically considered, is the result of the joined operation of the vocal and articulating organisms upon the current of expired breath.

2. Underlying both these organisms, and essential to both, are the lungs, which, with reference to speech, simply perform the office of a pair of bellows, drawing in and expelling the air. It is the return current of air, which, having become vitiated in the process of oxygenating the blood, is expelled preparatory to taking in a fresh supply, that forms the material basis of speech.

3. The vocal organism consists of the trachea, the larynx, and the pharynx. The first of these (often called the wind-pipe) is the air-tube which forms the direct avenue through which air enters and leaves the lungs. At its upper extremity it widens into a pear-shaped box of cartilage called the larynx, which is situated in the fore part of the neck above the trachea and below the base of the tongue. The larynx is formed of several thin plates of cartilage articulating upon each other, which are so provided with muscles as to be capable of considerable variation in their relative position. Within the larynx, and stretched across it from back to front, are the two vocal cords or ligaments. The edges of these two ligaments, when stretched by the muscular action of the larynx, are parallel and nearly or quite in contact, forming an elastic, membraneous diaphragm or partition in the air passage at this point. The slit or opening between the vocal ligaments is called the glottis. The production of high or low sounds depends upon the tension of the vocal ligaments, and, perhaps to some extent, upon some modification in the shape of the larynx and in the length of the trachea. When the vocal ligaments are tightened and the edges brought nearly or quite in contact, expired breath can not pass through without causing a vibration, thereby producing a sound, the pitch of which, as before said, depends upon the tension of the ligaments. The pharynx is a muscular and membraneous passage which connects the cavity of the mouth with the larynx and esophagus (or gullet) below and with the nasal passage above. Though not strictly employed in the production of sound it aids by its resonance in intensifying the vibrations of the vocal ligaments.

4. The articulating organism is peculiar to man, in whom alone of all the animal creation it is found in any considerable perfection. It consists of two groups of organs. Those of one group - the Hard Palate and the Teeth - are fixed and unchangeable in shape; those of the second group - the Lips, Tongue and Soft Palate-are soft and flexible, and may, therefore, change their shape and relative position, adapting themselves to the fixed organs and to each other in various ways. The great variety of positions assumed by these organs, forms a chain of contacts running from the lips - the most external - to the soft palate - the most internal; and thus a corresponding variety of modifications may be given to the expired breath.

5. A correct physiological classification of the elements of speech can be obtained only by considering the sounds in relation to these two organisms. If a sound of speech be considered with reference to the vocal organism it will be found to be either (a) voiced ox (b) whispered - that is to say, it is produced either (a) with a vibration of the vocal cords, or else (h) without such a vibration. If it be considered with reference to the articulating organism, it will be found to be either (1) obstructed or (2) unobstructed - that is, in its production (1) there exists a contact between certain of the articulating organs, or (2) there is no such contact. It is evident, furthermore, that while a given sound belongs to a certain class (a or b), with reference to the vocal organism, it may belong to either class (1 or 2), with reference to the articulating organism; and thus, of necessity, we have the four grand divisions of the elements of speech, as follows: a 1. Sounds that are voiced and obstructed (sonants). a 2. Sounds that are voiced and unobstructed (vowels). b 1. Sounds that are whispered and obstructed (surds). b 2. Sounds that are whispered and unobstructed (aspirates).

6. A careful study of the diagram on page 192 will assist the student to understand this classification, and, at the same time, indicate what particular sounds belong to each class. On the line joining the words "voiced" and "obstructed," the sonants are arranged, according to the order of their formation, along the line of articulations running from the lips to the soft palate ; and the vowels, surds, and aspirates are similarly arranged upon their respective lines. With respect to length, sounds may be either short (abrupt), or long (continuous), and in the diagram the short sounds are uniformly placed immediately above the line and the long sounds immediately below it. The medial quality of the vowel a is indicated by its being placed exactly on the line. The Nasal Continuants, m, n, and ng are indicated in italic type, and the Liquids / and r in a heavy-faced letter. The diacritical marks placed to the vowels and aspirates are those employed in Webster's International Dictionary, as follows: a heard in ale.

e heard in ermine.

A Classification of the Elementary Sounds of the English Language.

The Sounds of Speech are

1st, Modified or obstructed by the 2d,

Lips. Teeth. Gums. Hard Palate. S. Palate.