The Nutrition Of Man | by Russell H. Chittenden
In this presentation of the subject the attempt has been made to give a systematic account of our knowledge regarding some of the more important processes of nutrition, with special reference to the needs of the body for food. In doing this, the facts accumulated by painstaking observations and experiments during recent years in our laboratory have been incorporated with data from other sources and brought into harmony, so far as possible, with the modern trend of physiological thought.
| Title | The Nutrition Of Man |
| Author | Russell H. Chittenden |
| Publisher | Frederick A. Stokes Company |
| Year | 1907 |
| Copyright | 1907, Frederick A. Stokes Company |
| Amazon | The Nutrition of Man |
By Russell H. Chittenden, Ph.D., Ll.D., Sc.D., Author Of "Physiological Economy In Nutrition/' Bto. Professor Of Physiological Chemistry And Director Of The Sheffield Scientific School Of Yale University
With Illustrations
Preface- The present book is the outcome of a course of eight lectures delivered before the Lowell Institute of Boston in the early part of 1907. In this presentation of the subject the attempt has been made ...
- Chapter I. Foods And Their Digestion
- Topics: The purpose of nutrition. The food of man. Proteid foods. Carbohydrate foods. Fats. Food as fuel. Composition of foodstuffs. Availability of foods. Food as source of energy. Various factors in...
- Foods And Their Digestion. Part 2
- Dame Nature is very discriminating; she demands a definite form of nitrogenous compound, some peculiar or specific grouping of the nitrogen element with other elements in the food that can make good t...
- Foods And Their Digestion. Part 3
- Another generality, to be thoroughly understood, is that while the figures given for proteid express quite clearly and with reasonable degree of accuracy the relative amounts of proteid matter present...
- Foods And Their Digestion. Part 4
- At present, we accept for all purposes of computation the following figures as representing the physiological or available (to the body) fuel value of the three classes of organic foodstuffs: 1...
- Foods And Their Digestion. Part 5
- The application of these facts to our subject is perfectly obvious, since they suggest at once how the production or secretion of an important digestive fluid - upon which the utilization of a given c...
- Foods And Their Digestion. Part 6
- Another peculiarity of digestive enzymes is their extreme sensitiveness to changes in their environment. Powerful in their ability to transform relatively large quantities of a given foodstuff into si...
- Foods And Their Digestion. Part 7
- Another important function of gastric juice is that of curdling milk, due to the presence in the secretion of a peculiar enzyme known as rennin. The latter ferment acts upon the casein of milk, - the ...
- Foods And Their Digestion. Part 8
- It is evident from what has been stated that the gastric digestion of proteid foods is a comparatively slow process, involving several hours of time; and further, that food material in general remains...
- Foods And Their Digestion. Part 9
- The chemical changes taking place in the small intestine are many and varied. The acid chyme, with its admixture of semi-digested food material, as it passes through the pyloric sphincter into the sma...
- Foods And Their Digestion. Part 10
- Fatty foods undergo little or no chemical alteration until they reach the small intestine. During their stay in the stomach they naturally become liquid from the heat of the body, and there is more or...
- Chapter II. Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism
- Topics: Physiological peculiarities in absorption. Chemical changes in epithelial walls of intestine. Two pathways for absorbed material. Function of the liver as a regulator of carbohydrate. Absorpti...
- Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism. Part 2
- From these statements, it is obvious that what we term absorption is something more than a simple diffusion of soluble substances from the alimentary tract into the blood current. The process is much ...
- Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism. Part 3
- In the absorption of proteid products, their passage from the intestine by way of the portal circulation insures exposure to the action of the hepatic cells, before they are distributed by the general...
- Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism. Part 4
- Worthy of special notice is the fact that cell protoplasm is essentially proteid in nature; water and proteid make up the larger part of its substance, to which are added small proportions of carbohyd...
- Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism. Part 5
- At this time, and for long afterwards, the belief was prevalent that the air taken up by the blood in the lungs was the air of the atmosphere in its entirety. No one appears to have thought of the pos...
- Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism. Part 6
- To Liebig (1842) the next great advance was due. This phenomenally clear-minded man, while recognizing at their full value the fundamental theories advanced by Lavoisier, saw and fully appreciated the...
- Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism. Part 7
- In our brief survey of digestion, and of the methods there followed for the proper utilization of the organic foodstuffs, it was seen that the unorganized ferments or enzymes are the active agents in ...
- Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism. Part 8
- Our understanding of the chemical structure of any organic substance is based primarily upon a study of the decomposition products which result from its breaking down, under the influence of various c...
- Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism. Part 9
- Turning now to another phase of tissue metabolism, we may consider briefly the nucleoproteids and their characteristic decomposition products; bodies which are widely distributed as cleavage products ...
- Absorption, Assimilation, And The Processes Of Metabolism. Part 10
- Methyl guanidin is a decomposition product of creatin, while guanidin, as can be seen from the formula, is like urea, exceptdng that the group NH replaces the oxygen of urea. These simple statements w...
- Chapter III. The Balance Of Nutrition
- Tones: Body equilibrium. Nitrogen equilibrium. Carbon equilibrium. Loss of nitrogen during fasting. Influence of previous diet on loss of nitrogen in fasting. Output of carbon during fasting. Influenc...
- The Balance Of Nutrition. Part 2
- Secondly, the elimination of nitrogen during the earlier days of fasting is governed in large measure by the character and extent of the diet on the days just preceding the fast. This is well illustra...
- The Balance Of Nutrition. Part 3
- To fully appreciate what takes place in a man of the above body-weight fasting for five days (though living on a large excess of food prior to the fast), the daily losses of carbon and nitrogen may be...
- The Balance Of Nutrition. Part 4
- As an illustration of how the body behaves with a low nitrogen intake followed by a sudden increase in the income of proteid, some data from an experiment performed by Sivén2on himself may be cited: ...
- The Balance Of Nutrition. Part 5
- The addition of carbohydrate to a meat diet produces at once a saving in the decomposition of proteid, as shown in the following figures, covering an experiment of two days: Meat. Sugar....
- The Balance Of Nutrition. Part 6
- It is generally considered as a settled fact, that in man it is impossible to accomplish any large permanent storing or deposition of flesh by overfeeding. Similarly, it is understood that the muscula...
- The Balance Of Nutrition. Part 7
- In illustration of the efficiency of an apparatus of this description, and of the close agreement obtainable by direct calori-metric measurement with the estimated energy, as figured from the material...
- The Balance Of Nutrition. Part 8
- In studying heat production in the body under varying conditions, one of the important aids in drawing conclusions as to the character of the body material burned up is the respiratory quotient. This ...
- The Balance Of Nutrition. Part 9
- The work done in these experiments was on a stationary-bicycle in the calorimeter, and the heat equivalent was calculated from measurements made by an ergometer attached to the bicycle. We are not con...
- The Balance Of Nutrition. Part 10
- From what has been said, it is obvious that oxygen con-sumption, as well as output of carbon dioxide, must vary enormously with variations in the muscular activity of the body. The one important facto...
- Chapter IV. Source Of The Energy Of Muscle Work, With Some Theories Of Proteid Metabolism
- Topics: Relation of muscle work to energy exchange. Views of Liebig. Experimental evidence. Relation of nitrogen excretion to muscle work. Significance of the respiratory quotient in determining natur...
- Source Of The Energy Of Muscle Work. Part 2
- While experiments of this nature, on man and animals, all tended to show little or no increase in the excretion of nitrogen, as a result of muscle work; and likewise no increase in the output of sulph...
- Source Of The Energy Of Muscle Work. Part 3
- Much stress is ordinarily laid upon the importance of a large intake of proteid food whenever the body is called upon to perform severe, or long-continued, muscular work; but in view of what has been ...
- Source Of The Energy Of Muscle Work. Part 4
- We have very convincing proof that the carbohydrate glycogen can be formed from proteid. Thus, the feeding of proteid to warm-blooded animals may be accompanied by an accumulation of glycogen in the l...
- Source Of The Energy Of Muscle Work. Part 5
- In discussing these questions, we shall need to refer to several of the current theories concerning proteid metabolism, notably, the theories of Voit, Pfltiger, and Folin. In 1867 Carl Voit,1 of Munic...
- Source Of The Energy Of Muscle Work. Part 6
- In this conception of proteid metabolism, we picture the different organs and tissues of the body as being permeated by a fluid which carries variable amounts of nutritive material, the quantity of th...
- Source Of The Energy Of Muscle Work. Part 7
- As has been stated many times in the course of this presentation, the most striking feature of proteid metabolism is the rapidity with which large quantities of proteid consumed as fond are broken dow...
- Source Of The Energy Of Muscle Work. Part 8
- Thanks especially to the work of Folin,1 these data are now apparently at hand, and the (acta which he has accumulated with painstaking care seem destined to throw additional light upon our conception...
- Source Of The Energy Of Muscle Work. Part 9
- We have seen at what low levels of proteid intake, nitrogen equilibrium can be established, and we may well have faith in the conception of an endogenous proteid katabolism which involves only minimal...
- Chapter V. Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements
- Topics: Dietetic customs of mankind. Origin of dietary standards. True food requirements. Arguments based on custom and habit. Relationship between food consumption and prosperity. Erroneous ideas reg...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 2
- Leaving out of consideration the extremes given, it is undoubtedly true that, within certain rather wide limits, there is an apparent tendency for people of different nutions, having a free choice of ...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 3
- Proteid foods are usually costly, and the ability of a com-munity to indulge freely in this form of dietetic luxury depends in large measure upon its commercial prosperity. The palate is an extremely ...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 4
- Habits and cravings are certainly very unreliable indices of true physiological requirements. Man is constantly acquiring new habits, and these in time become second nature, forcing him to practise th...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 5
- Cogan likewise makes some interesting statements regarding the effects of custom on the consumption of proteid food, especially meats. Quoting further from this author: The fourth thing that is to be...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 6
- This question has been studied by many investigators, with very interesting and suggestive results. Thus, in 1887, Hirschfeld1 reported some experiments on himself, twenty-four years of age and weighi...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 7
- To one willing to accept the data as having possible significance there arises at once the question, How long can the body be maintained in nitrogen equilibrium on such relatively small quantities of ...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 8
- In this particular period of six days, the body was really gaining a little nitrogen, i. e., storing away a small amount of proteid for future use, although it may be granted that the amount was too s...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 9
- Let us turn now to the second subject in this group, a man of 76 kilos body-weight, 32 years of age, and of strong physique. His active life in the laboratory called for greater physical exertion than...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 10
- Finally, as affording additional evidence, we may refer to a third subject in this group, a man of 65 kilos body-weight, 26 years of age, who for a period of six consecutive months maintained body-wei...
- Dietary Habits And True Food Requirements. Part 11
- The daily intake of nitrogen during this balance period averaged 8.83 grams, corresponding 55.1grams of proteid food. The metabolized nitrogen eliminated through the kidneys averaged 7.58 grams per da...
- Chapter VI. Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements
- Topics: Dietary experiments with a detail of soldiers from the United States army. General character of the army ration. Samples of the daily dietary adopted. Rate of nitrogen metabolism attained. Eff...
- Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements. Part 2
- For a period of six months, a daily dietary was prescribed for the subjects; the food for each meal and for every man being of known composition, each article being carefully weighed, while the conten...
- Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements. Part 3
- March 31. Breakfast Fried Indian meal 100 grams, syrup 76 grama, baked potato 250 grams, butter 20 grams, one cap coffee 860 grams. Dinner Tomato soup, thick, with potatoes and onions boiled in, 8...
- Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements. Part 4
- With one exception, all of the men were plainly having more proteid food than was necessary to maintain the body in nitrogen equilibrium, the plus nitrogen balance in most cases being fairly large. It...
- Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements. Part 5
- Let us now turn our attention for a moment to the group of university athletes, remembering that these men had been in training for many months, and some of them for several years, prior to the commen...
- Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements. Part 6
- With these marked effects on strength and fatigue, it is reasonable to assume that some corresponding action may be exerted on physical endurance. As is well known, strength and endurance, though rela...
- Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements. Part 7
- We see in these results another confirmation of the view that the welfare of the body is not impaired by a marked reduction in the amount of proteid food; on the contrary, benefit results in the incre...
- Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements. Part 8
- On this limited dietary of raw, uncooked food, with a complete absence of the high-proteid animal foods, and the ordinary vegetables, legumes, etc., and without eggs or milk, this family, with three g...
- Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements. Part 9
- Even more striking were the results obtained in a study of the dietary habits of three healthy natives of Formosa, employed as day laborers at the military hospital. They weighed respectively 60.9, 55...
- Further Experiments And Observations Bearing On True Food Requirements. Part 10
- Probably, one of the chief reasons why persistent efforts were made to improve the dietary of the navy was the prevalence among the men of the disease known as beriberi. While no satisfactory explana...
- Chapter VII. The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals
- Topics: A wide variety of foods quite consistent with temperance in diet. Safety of low proteid standards considered, Arguments based on the alleged effects of low proteid diet on high proteid animals...
- The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals. Part 2
- The argument based on this evidence is that while a high proteid animal feels at once, or almost immediately, the deleterious effect of a reduction in the amount of proteid food, an omnivorous animal ...
- The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals. Part 3
- A second experiment with a dog of 5.8 kilograms, fed on meat, fat, and rice, led to essentially the same results as the preceding experiment At the end of the first month, there appeared indications t...
- The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals. Part 4
- These are the results, collectively, so frequently used to point a moral for man: Beware of the possible danger of reducing the consumption of proteid food below the commonly accepted dietary standard...
- The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals. Part 5
- The question how far results obtained with dogs can be applied safely to man may be open to discussion, but we must first be sure of our facts before arguments or conclusions of any kind are warranted...
- The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals. Part 6
- In considering the outcome of our experiments, it may be wise to enter into some detail concerning the first case to be presented. The animal employed in this experiment was designated as No. 5, and w...
- The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals. Part 7
- Turning now to a second subject, designated as dog No. 3, the experiment with which lasted for nearly an entire year, the following general statements may be made. The animal was a small black and whi...
- The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals. Part 8
- The illustrations so far presented, with the general agreement in the character of the results, might perhaps be interpreted as indicating that there is no difficulty whatever in bringing a high prote...
- The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals. Part 9
- This experiment with dog No. 17 has been dwelt upon at some length, because it illustrates a very important principle in the nutrition of a high proteid and carnivorous animal. As before stated, it is...
- The Effect Of Low Proteid Diet On High Proteid Animals. Part 10
- It has been said, notably by Munk, that in dogs fed for some time on a low proteid diet there is a diminished power of absorption from the intestinal tract, associated with weakened digestion. If it i...
- Chapter VIII. Practical Applications With Some Additional Data
- Topics: Proper application of the results of scientific research helpful to mankind. Dietary habits should be brought into conformity with the true needs of the body. The peculiar position of proteid ...
- Practical Applications With Some Additional Data. Part 2
- Even though no such dire fate overtakes one, the penalties of excessive proteid consumption are found in many ills, for which perhaps the victim seeks in vain a logical explanation; gastro-intestinal ...
- Practical Applications With Some Additional Data. Part 3
- It may not be out of place to state at this point that in the writer's opinion the use of the terms standard diet and dietary standards, etc., is objectionable, since such usage seems to demand a ...
- Practical Applications With Some Additional Data. Part 4
- Lastly, our table throws light upon certain questions of household economy. The cost of foods is regulated mainly not by the value of the nutrients contained therein, but by other factors of quite a d...
- Practical Applications With Some Additional Data. Part 5
- It will be profitable for us to gain, if possible, a fairly clear idea of the quantities of food requisite for our average man of 70 kilograms body-weight; i. e., the amounts necessary to provide 60 g...
- Practical Applications With Some Additional Data. Part 6
- Any attempt to follow a daily routine which accords with the true needs of the body leads necessarily toward foods derived from the plant kingdom, with the adoption of simple dietary habits, and with ...
- Practical Applications With Some Additional Data. Part 7
- Still, it is perfectly obvious that custom has greatly exaggerated the fuel values required in ordinary muscular work, and such results as are here presented tend to emphasize the true relationship be...
- Practical Applications With Some Additional Data. Part 8
- Simplicity in diet, with or without complete abstinence from meat, is often resorted to as a means of relief from bodily ailments, and such cases sometimes afford striking illustrations of the adequac...
- Practical Applications With Some Additional Data. Part 9
- Fuel value, however, should be increased somewhat during the winter months in our climate. Fat promises the largest amount of energy, but there is more of a tendency to store up excess of fat than of ...
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