The furniture of the Middle Ages was constructed of solid oak, consisting of massive planks and wide panels left bare to be decorated with painting, stamped leather, or lightly cut ornaments. Gradually the carving developed and became more important in company with the changes of sculptured ornament in Gothic architecture. Under the luxurious Dukes of Burgundy, Flemish taste prevailed both in England and France during the Fifteenth Century. This taste was characterized by naturalism of form and face, expressive attitude and a tendency to satire and caricature.

"The complete development of Gothic architecture, and the pieces of furniture inspired by the same taste are divided into flamboyant Gothic arcades, and crowned by fine needle-shaped crockets and floriated croziers; their niches contain elegantly quaint figures and the panels with their bas-reliefs rival in perfection the retables (altar-pieces) and triptychs of intricate workmanship." 1

1 Jacquemart.

A glance at the carved furniture of this period shows that the motives of decoration consisted of human and animal figures, foliage and plate-tracery and bar-tracery. In the Fifteenth Century the tracery was largely supplanted by the "linen-fold," which became exceedingly popular in Germany, France, Flanders and England. The panels of German work on Plate III. and Plate VII. show two elaborate examples of this motive which was banished by the Renaissance. A third example on Plate VIII. shows this design on a French credence or buffet of the same period.

During the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries the forms of furniture were few. Perhaps the most important was the chest, huche, or bahut, in which money, clothes, linen, tapestries and valuables were preserved and transported from place to place. Next came the bedstead; then the chair, for the master of the house; then the high-backed benches and stools (escabeaux); then the credence {buffet); and, finally, the dressoir, with its shelves on which cloths were laid and plate displayed.

Furniture changed very little during the next two centuries. More luxurious fabrics were brought home by the Crusaders; and the cushions, carpets and hangings became richer and more plentiful. Carving progressed and the style of marquetry known as alla certosa was introduced from Italy.

A great number of little pieces of furniture, such as caskets, coffers, echiquiers (chessboards) incrusted or mar-quete with ivory appear in the inventories of the Fourteenth Century, generally under the name of Vauvre de Damas. Undoubtedly the Crusaders brought them from the East, and the inlay frequently consists of verses from the Koran (lettres sarzines). In Europe, and especially in France, these wares were soon imitated.

Italian furniture during the Fifteenth Century was notable for its bright color; painting and marquetry were its chief characteristics. During the Renaissance furniture borrowed its forms and strong reliefs from sculpture, and for the flat forms, which showed off the purity of profile and harmony of colors, forms of furniture were substituted that looked well with imposing architecture. Each piece of furniture presented veritable bas-reliefs often much contorted, whose magnificent and sumptuous effect was increased still more by being ornamented with gold or covered entirely with gold.

Carved Oak Seat With Movable Back. Fifteenth Cen Tuky

Carved Oak Seat With Movable Back. Fifteenth Cen-Tuky

Leather was extensively used during the Middle Ages for furnishing: it was hung upon the walls and beds, spread upon the floors, and was used to cover the seats and backs of chairs, coffers, and all kinds of boxes. In 1420, we hear of a piece of Cordovan called cuirace vermeil "to put on the floor around a bed," and also a "chamber hanging" of "silvered cuir de mouton, ornamented with red figures." Charles V. of France had "fifteen cuirs d'Arragon to put on the floor in summer," and the Duke of Burgundy's inventory of 1427 mentions "leathers to spread in the chamber in summer time."

The floral and other patterns and figures were gilded and stood out from grounds of bright colors. Though the use of gilded leather (cuirs dores) did not become general until the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, the art of gilding, silvering, painting and goffering leather had long been known. Cordova was making beautiful gilded leathers in the Eleventh Century. The most beautiful leathers came from Spain, where they were called Guadameciles, from Ghadames in Africa from which town the Moors carried the industry to Cordova.

From Cordova the manufacture spread into Portugal, Italy, France and Brabant. The great centres for gilded leathers in the Middle Ages were Cordova, Lisbon, Lille, Brussels, Liege, Antwerp, Mechlin and Venice. The Portuguese leathers were made of sheepskin, and became very famous. These were imitated by the Flemings who used calfskin with less success. The subjects of decoration of early leathers are taken from sacred or mythological stories. The details of the faces, ornaments, costumes, arms, etc., are stamped by hand work and finished with a brush; and the background is ornamented by guilloches (twisted bands) in gold and color, applied by means of a goffering iron.

Beautiful Cordovan leather covers the chair on Plate XIX.

Little study has yet been given to the arts in Spain during the Middle Ages; and although wood-carving was in a very flourishing condition, being largely used in the decoration of the Mauresque buildings, yet examples of Spanish furniture of the period are extremely rare. It has been suggested that this may be explained by the Oriental influence over the greater part of the peninsula which reduced furniture to the mere necessaries, - chests, cushions, carpets and hangings. The Gothic work produced by the native craftsmen belongs principally to what might be called the international style of the Fifteenth Century. It is believed that there must still exist in Spain a good deal of carved furniture of that period which in construction and ornamentation resembles the work of the French and Flemish experts of that day.