(A) Roman

With semicircular head. Noting characteristics such as the principle of the Roman arch, which superseded the post and lintel construction used by the Greeks. Teacher to indicate by means of photos, diagrams, or slides, existing remains of Roman work showing these features.

(B) Norman

With semicircular head, but built up with sections of stone. Note the decoration of these types and deal with examples in old churches, etc. Deal also with term"Norman"and historic matter.

Third Lesson.

(C) Gothic

Pointed arch construction, class to note development from semicircular; with brief historical notes of the time. Illustrate by means of large diagrams the difference between Norman and Gothic moulded doorways.

(D) Tudor

With flat-pointed arch construction. The open fireplace of Tudor times with arch corresponding to doorways.

Fourth Lesson.

A Georgian Doorway as per photograph (Fig. 1). (a) Characteristics of the Georgian doorway. 1. Entrance door with fanlight above.

2. Portico with cornice supported by classical columns.

3. Without portico, but with pilasters and consoles supporting pediment.

4. Names and outstanding work of some eighteenth-century architects.

5. Customs of the Georgian period, and use of link extinguishers attached to doorways, etc.

6. Description of terms applied to the various parts of the Georgian doorway, column, pilaster, etc.

7. Indicate application of terms to domestic objects. Fifth Lesson.

(a) Simple outline diagrams to be drawn of the Roman, Norman, or Gothic and Tudor arched doorways, or

(b) Simple outline diagram of the Georgian doorway with names of parts indicated, such as pediment capping cornice frieze column pilaster

It will be seen from the above that quite a number of object lessons can be devised with the doorway as a basis. There is quite as much interest and scope when dealing with the fireplace and the window, whilst working backwards from a piece of furniture, with a discussion of the technical terms applied, will afford opportunities for introducing craft history as well as political history. From the ironwork side there is the gate, railings, and lighting structures, all of which have passed through definite developments and cannot properly be separated from the literary side of history.

Object Lesson (Metal): Eighteenth-Century Gates.

The photograph reproduced in Fig. 2 of eighteenth-century ironwork is typical of the period, and like much more of our older work is fully understood only when we know something of the life of the time. Indeed such pieces of work can be used to illustrate and to help us to understand a phase of London life now past.

Life and property are now more secure, and the consequent feeling of comparative safety is reflected in the way our houses are built. The doors of our modern houses and mansions do not require the iron bindings we find on the castle doors. Very frequently these bindings were elaborations of the hinges on which the door was hung. Elaborations of the hinges are to-day put on church doors, but the only aim is adornment. When the moats with the drawbridges and portcullises disappeared large and very strong entrance gates of iron were made in the walls of the castles. These gates often had, in one of the leaves or panels, a small wicket-gate large enough to admit only one person at a time. Round the smaller but higher houses which became necessary because of the increased population, the walls were replaced by railings nearer the house, and these shut in the house and its forecourt as shown in the illustration. That the necessities and social conditions of the times account for the differences between the castle with its walls, moat, and drawbridge and the house shown is obvious, and whenever possible such connexions between historical facts and practical work should be pointed out.

Fig. 2.-Ironwork at No. 44 Great Ormond Street, Bloomsbury (1708).

Though around houses iron railings followed walls, it must not be supposed that their origin was merely replacing stone walls. Between the chancel and the body of Early Christian churches were iron lattice screens; inside the entrance gates of castles were strong lattice-work gates; and these with the rows of serried pikes in the hands of soldiers probably suggested iron railings. Defensive railings of plain lattice work were used by the Romans. Originally outside railings being for defence would be high, strong, and plain; inside ironwork, e.g. that in the Rejas or screens of the Spanish cathedrals made in the reign of Charles V., a noble and generous patron of the arts, was highly decorated. When railings were no longer merely defensive the inside decorations might have suggested decorations for outside ironwork. The actual work shown (Fig. 2) is good smiths' work, and is an advance on that of the earlier years where the smiths in their construction often copied woodworkers. Instead of punching holes in the horizontal bars which held the uprights, thus swelling the bar and in no way weakening it, they fastened the uprights with flat horizontal straps riveted through. It may be remarked that this punching was done when the iron was hot. Modern punching in the cold usually carries away the piece and leaves the bar weaker.

The large gate was lighted with oil lamps held by the rings shown on top of the lamp holders or lamp-irons, and these in turn were fixed to the lamp standards which are the tall panels on each side of the gate. The hook shown in front of the lamp-irons was for the ladder of the lamplighter. Such lamp-irons, though now common only on the houses of doctors showing their red lanterns, were then a feature of all houses of any size. A law was passed by the Mayor of London commanding all whose houses fronted any street, lane, or public passage, to hang out a lamp or lantern during the winter evenings from Hallow-tide to Candlemasse (October to February). Sufficient cotton wick had to be provided for a light lasting from six to eleven o'clock. Public lamps were supplied where absence of these privately owned lamps rendered them necessary, and were provided for by fines of one shilling a head levied on those who failed to hang out a lantern. The work of the municipal authorities, the organization of the police, and education, have provided lamps, lessened dangers to citizens, and diminished brutal crimes; but on some old houses are still to be seen interesting examples of the old lamp standards.

Another interesting feature on some old houses reminiscent of dark unlighted thoroughfares are the link extinguishers, which can be seen one on each side of the lamp standards. These curious looking horns or trumpets, into which the link-boy thrust his torch to extinguish it, are made of sheet iron. Some of them had lids. Actual examples still remain on the fine lamp standards in Berkeley and Grosvenor Squares, the mansions in which date from 1700. The links or torches of tow and resin or of pitch-pine were kept in rings driven into the walls inside the entrance. In Florence cemented into the walls of the Strozzi Palace are some magnificent torch or link holders. These are of wrought and chiselled iron in the form of a winged dragon with a human face. The mouth holds a pin with a chiselled ring into which the torch fits, and on a bracket supporting the body is a carved and studded ring for the reins of the horses of visitors. There are many specimens of these torch brackets in the Albert and Victoria Museum. The man who loves his craft must now and again mourn the fact that gas and electricity, with their often ugly cast-iron standards, have made such fine examples of good work unnecessary.

The small spikes in the bottom bar of the centre gate are known as dogbars. Necessary as such bars might be to-day in some of our London suburbs, they were still more necessary in the city where, before the days of the dustmen and bins, the offal thrown into the streets provided rich repasts for hundreds of stray dogs. They are reminders of the less pleasant and less heroic things of old days.

Dropping now the historical aspect we shall remark on some features of the photograph that may be interesting to craftsmen. The pilasters which follow the ramps are of good proportion and are of the form usually known as the lyre form. This is obvious. The C scrolls in the centre are held in position by a collar made in two pieces and riveted through. The tops of the pilasters are finished off with cast-iron knobs. The tops of the palings (usually called railings-a rail is a horizontal bar, not a vertical one) have been forged separately and screwed on to the tenons forged on the uprights. The lower ends of these uprights have been left rough and leaded into the stone base. The appearance of the work is greatly improved by moulded spikes and leafy arrows alternately placed along the tops. As J. de Wolf Addison says:Craft may be practised without art and still serve its purpose, but an alliance of the two is a means of giving pleasure as well as serving utility". The photograph shown proves the truth of Addison's statement.