A general reference work on architecture, carpentry, building, superintendence, contracts, specifications, building law, stair-building, estimating, masonry, reinforced concrete, structural engineering, architectural drawing, sheet metal work, heating, ventilating, etc.
Prepared by a Staff of Architects, Builders, Engineers, And Experts Of The Highest Professional Standing
Illustrated with over Three Thousand Engravings
Ten Volumes
Foreword Vol4- THE rapid evolution of constructive methods in recent years, as illustrated in the use of steel and concrete, and the increased size and complexity of buildings, has created the necessity for an autho...
- Masonry And Reinforced Concrete. Part I. Masonry Materials
- Masonry may be defined as construction in which the chief constructive material is stone or an artificial mineral product such as brick, terra-cotta, or cemented blocks. Under this broad definition, e...
- Natural Stone And Its Characteristics
- 1. From the constructor's standpoint, any stone is good which will fulfil certain desired characteristics. These various characteristics are not found combined in the highest degree in any one kind of...
- Testing Stone
- 6. Of the above four qualities, only two - durability and strength - are susceptible of laboratory testing, and even for these qualities the best known laboratory tests are not conclusive. The deterio...
- 12. Limestone
- Carbonate of lime forms the principal ingredient of limestone. A pure limestone should consist only of carbonate of lime. However, none of our natural stones are chemically pure, but all contain a gre...
- 13. Marble
- When limestone is wholly crystalline and suitable for ornamental purposes, it is called marble; or, in other words, any limestone that can be polished is called marble. There are a great many varietie...
- 14. Dolomite
- When the carbonate of magnesia occurring in limestone rises to about 45 per cent, the stone is then called dolomite. It is usually whitish or yellowish in color, and is a crystalline granular aggregat...
- 15. Sandstone
- Sandstones are composed of grains of sand that have been cemented together through the aid of heat and pressure, forming a solid rock. The cementing material usually is either silica, carbonate of lim...
- 16. Conglomerates
- Conglomerates differ from sandstone only in structure, being coarser and of a more uneven texture. The grains are usually an inch or more in diameter. ...
- 17. Granite
- The essential components of the true granites are quartz and potash feldspar. Granites are rendered complex, although the essential minerals are but two in number, by the presence of numerous accessor...
- 18. Trap Rock
- Trap rock, or diabase, is a crystalline, granular rock, composed essentially of feldspar and augite; but nearly all contains magnetite and frequently olivine. They are basic in composition and in stru...
- 19. Seasoning Of Stone
- Stone, to weather well, should be laid with its bedding (lamination) horizontal, as it was first laid down by nature in the quarry. The stone, moreover, will offer greater resistance to pressure if la...
- 20. Definition And Characteristics
- The term brick is usually applied to the product resulting from burning moulded prisms of clay in a kiln at a high temperature. Common brick is not extensively used in engineering structures, except ...
- 25. Classification Of Common Bricks
- Bricks are usually classified in three ways: (a) Manner of moulding; (6) position in kiln; (c) their shape or use. (a) The manner in which brick is moulded has produced the following terms: Soft-mud...
- 26. Crushing Strength
- The results of crushing tests of brick vary greatly, depending on the details of the tests made. Many reports fail to give the details under which these tests are made, and in that case the real value...
- 27. Fire Brick
- Furnaces must be lined with a material which is even more refractory than ordinary brick. The oxide and sulphide of iron, which are so common (and comparatively harmless) in ordinary brick, will ruin ...
- 28. Sand-Lime Brick
- Within the last few years, the sand-lime brick industry has been developed to some extent. The materials for making this brick consist of sand and lime; and they were first made by moulding ordinary l...
- Concrete Building Blocks
- 29. The growth of the concrete block industry has been rapid. The blocks are taking the place of wood, brick, and stone for ordinary wall construction. They are strong, durable, and cheap. The blocks ...
- Cementing Materials
- 38. The principal cementing materials are Common Lime, Hydraulic Lime, Pozzuolana, Natural Cement, and Portland Cement. There are a few other varieties, but their use is so limited that they need not ...
- 39. Common Lime
- This is produced by burning limestone whose chief ingredient is carbonate of lime. Except in the form of marble, a limestone usually contains other substances - perhaps up to 10 per cent of silica, ...
- 40. Hydraulic Lime
- This is derived from limestones containing about 10 to 20 per cent of clay or silica, which is intimately mixed with the carbonate of lime in the structure of the stone. During the process of burning,...
- 41. Pozzuolana Or Slag Cement
- Pozzuolana is a form of cementing material which has been somewhat in use since very ancient times. Apparently it was first made from the lava from the volcano Vesuvius, the lava being picked up at Po...
- 42. Natural Cement
- Natural cement is obtained by burning an argillaceous or a magnesian limestone which happens to have the proper chemical composition. The resulting clinker is then finely ground and is at once ready f...
- 43. Portland Cement
- Portland cement consists of the product of burning and grinding an artificial mixture of carbonate of lime and clay or slag, the mixture being very carefully proportioned so that the ingredients shall...
- Cement Testing
- 44. The thorough testing of cement, as it is done for the largest public works, should properly be done in a professional testing laboratory. A textbook of several hundred pages has recently been writ...
- Cement Testing. Part 2
- Weight of cement Specific Gravity = Displaced volume The flask during the operation is kept in water in a jar A in order to avoid variation in [the temperature of the liquid. The results should agre...
- Cement Testing. Part 3
- * From the report of a committee of the American Society for Testing Materials. For this purpose the Vicat Needle, which has already been described, should be used. In making the test, a paste of nor...
- Cement Testing. Part 4
- 56. Storage Of The Test Pieces During the first 24 hours after moulding, the test pieces should be kept in moist air to prevent them from drying out. A moist closet or chamber is so easily devised th...
- Natural Cement
- 60. Definition This term shall be applied to the finely pulverized product resulting from the calcination of an argillaceous limestone at a temperature only sufficient to drive off the carbonic acid ...
- Portland Cement
- 66. Definition This term is applied to the finely pulverized product resulting from the calcination to incipient fusion of an intimate mixture of properly proportioned argillaceous and calcareous mat...
- Sand Testing
- 73. Sand is nearly always a constituent part of mortar and concrete. The strength of the masonry is dependent to a considerable extent on the qualities of the sand, and it is therefore important that ...
- Broken Stone
- 81. This term ordinarily signifies the product of a stone crusher or the result of hand-breaking by hammering large blocks of stone; but the term may also include gravel, described below. 82. Classif...
- Mortar
- 87. The term mortar is usually applied to the mixture of sand and cementing material which is placed between the large stones of a stone structure, although the term might also be properly applied to ...
- 88. Common Lime Mortar
- The first step in the preparation of common lime mortar is the slaking of the lime. This should be done by putting the lime into a water-tight box, or at least on a platform which is substantially wat...
- 89. Natural Cement Mortar
- This is largely used, especially when mixed with lime to retard the setting, in the construction of walls of buildings, cellar foundations, and, in general, in masonry where the unit-stresses are so l...
- 90. Portland Cement Mortar
- A barrel of Portland cement will contain 370 to 380 pounds, net, of cement. Its capacity averages about 3.3 cubic feet, although with some brands the capacity may reach 3.75. The expansion when the ce...
- 91. Lime In Cement Mortar
- Lime is frequently employed in the cement mortar used for buildings, for a combination of reasons: (a) It is unquestionably more economical; but if the percentage added (or that which replaces the ce...
- 92. Effect Of Re-Gauging Or Re-Mixing Mortar
- Specifications and textbooks have repeatedly copied from one another a requirement that all mortar which is not used immediately after being mixed and before it has taken an initial set must be reject...
- 93. Proportions Of Materials For Mortar
- (1) Lime Mortar. As previously stated in section 88, a barrel of unslaked lime should be mixed with about 8 1/2 cubic feet of water. This will make about 9 cubic feet of lime paste. Mixing this with a...
- Concrete
- Concrete is composed of a mixture of cement, sand, and crushed stone or gravel, which, after being mixed with water, soon sets and obtains a hardness and strength equal to that of a good building ston...
- 95. Compressive Strength of Concrete
- The compressive strength of concrete is very important, as it is used more often in compression than in any other way. It is rather difficult to give average values of the compressive strength of conc...
- 108. Practical Methods Of Concrete Proportioning
- A rich mixture, proportions 1:2:4 - that is, 1 barrel (4 bags) packed Portland cement (as it comes from the manufacturer), 2 barrels (7.6 cubic feet) loose sand, and 4 barrels (15.2 cubic feet) loose ...
- 109. Methods Of Mixing Concrete
- The method of mixing concrete is immaterial, if a homogeneous mass is secured of a uniform consistency, containing the cement, sand, and stone in the correct proportions. The value of the concrete dep...
- 110. Wetness Of Concrete
- In regard to plasticity, or facility of working and moulding, concrete may be divided into three classes: dry, medium, and very wet. Dry concrete is used in foundations which may be subjected to seve...
- 111. Transporting And Depositing Concrete
- Concrete is usually deposited in layers of 6 inches to 12 inches in thickness. In handling and transporting concrete, care must be taken to prevent the separation of the stone from the mortar. The usu...
- 112. Ramming Concrete
- Immediately after concrete is placed, it should be rammed or puddled, care being taken to force out the air-bubbles. The amount of ramming necessary depends upon how much water is used in mixing the c...
- 113. Bonding Old And New Concrete
- To secure a water-tight joint between old and new concrete,requires a great deal of care. Where the strain is chiefly compressive, as in foundations, the surface of the concrete laid on the previous d...
- 114. Effects Of Freezing Of Concrete
- Many experiments have been made to determine the effect of freezing of concrete before it has a chance to set. From these and from practical experience, it is now generally accepted that the ultimate ...
- 115. Water-Tightness Of Concrete
- Water-tight concrete, or concrete made water-tight by some kind of waterproof coating, is frequently required, either for inclosing a space which must he kept dry, or for storing water or other liquid...
- 116. Sylvester Process
- The alternate application of washes of castile soap and alum, each being dissolved in water, is known as the Sylvester process of waterproofing. Castile soap is dissolved in water, 3/4 of a pound of s...
- 117. Asphalt Waterproofing
- If asphalt is to be applied to a concrete surface, the concrete should be dry; and it will be found generally more satisfactory to coat the dry surface first with asphalt cut with naphtha. Unless the ...
- 118. Felt Laid With Asphalt
- In waterproofing floors, roofs, subways, tunnels, etc., alternate layers of paper or felt are laid with asphalt, bitumen, or tar. These materials range from ordinary tar paper laid with coal-tar pitch...
- 119. Medusa Waterproof Compound
- Among the many patented waterproofing materials on the market is the Medusa. This compound is claimed to prevent efflorescence, as well as to make concrete waterproof. In using it, the following dir...
- Bitumen
- 120. Varieties One of the groups of mineral substances composed of different hydro-carbons, which are widely scattered throughout the world, is known as bitumen. There is a great variety of forms in ...
- Preservation Of Steel In Concrete
- 123. Tests have been made to find the value of Portland cement concrete as a protection of steel or iron from corrosion. Nearly all of these tests have been of short duration (from a few weeks to seve...
- 124. Cinder Vs. Stone Concrete
- A compact cinder concrete has proven about as effective a protection for steel as stone concrete. The corrosion found in cinder concrete is mainly due to iron oxide or rust in the cinders, and not to ...
- 126. Tests By Professor Norton
- Prof. Chas. L. Norton made several experiments with concrete bricks, 3 by 3 by 8-inch, in which steel rods, sheet metal, and expanded metal were imbedded. The specimens were enclosed in tin boxes with...
- Fire Protection
- 127. The various tests which have been conducted - including the involuntary tests made as the result of fires - have shown that the fire-resisting qualities of concrete, and even resistance to a comb...
- Methods Of Mixing Concrete
- 133. The two methods used in mixing concrete are by hand and by machinery. Good concrete may be made by either method Concrete mixed by either method should be carefully watched by a good foreman. If ...
- 134. Hand Mixing Concrete
- The placing and handling of materials and arranging the plant are varied by different engineers and contractors. In general the mixing of concrete is a simple operation, but should be carefully watche...
- 135. Mixing Concrete By Machinery
- On large contracts the concrete is generally mixed by machinery. The economy is not only in the mixing itself but in the appliances introduced in handling the raw materials and the mixed concrete. If ...
- Steel For Reinforcing Concrete
- 137. Steel for reinforcing concrete is not usually subjected to so severe treatment as ordinary structural steel, as the impact effect is likely to be less; but the quality of the steel should be care...
- 139. Types Of Reinforcing Steel
- The reinforcing steel usually consists of small bars of such shape and size that they may easily be bent and placed in the concrete so as to form a monolithic structure. To distribute the stress in th...
- 142. Deformed Bars
- There are many forms of reinforcing materials on the market, differing from one another in the manner of forming the irregular projections on their surface. The object of all these special forms of ba...
- 143. Definitions
- In the following paragraphs, the meanings of various technical terms frequently used in stone masonry, are clearly explained: Arris - The external edge formed by two surfaces, whether plane or curved...
- 143. Definitions. Continued
- Grout - A thin mixture of cement, sand, and water, which is sometimes forced by pressure into the cracks in defective masonry or to fill cavities which have formed behind masonry walls. Sometimes grou...
- 144. Classification Of Dressed Stones
- Stone masonry is classified according to the shape of the stones, and also according to the quality and accuracy of the dressing of the joints so that the joints may be close. The definitions of these...
- 145. Stone Cutting And Dressing
- Many of the requirements and methods of stone dressing have already been stated in the definitions given above. Frequently a rock is so stratified that it can be split up into blocks whose faces are s...
- 146. Cost Of Dressing Stone
- Although, as explained above, the cost of dressing stone should properly be estimated by the square foot of surface dressed, most figures which are obtainable give the cost per cubic yard of masonry, ...
- 147. Constructive Features - Bonding
- It is a fundamental principle of masonry construction, that vertical joints (either longitudinal or lateral) should not be continuous for any great distance. Masonry walls (except those of concrete b...
- 148. Allowable Unit-Pressures
- In estimating such quantities, the following considerations must be kept in mind: (a) The accuracy of the dressing of the stone, particularly the bed-joints, has a very great influence. (b) The stre...
- 149. Cost Of Stone Masonry
- The total cost is a combination of several very variable items as follows: 1. Value of quarry privilege; 2. Cost of stripping superincumbent earth or disintegrated rock; 3. Cost of quarrying; 4. C...
- Brick Masonry Terms
- Many of the terms employed in stone masonry, and of the directions for properly doing the work, are equally applicable to brick masonry, ana therefore will not be here repeated. The following sections...
- 150. Bonding Used In Brick Masonry
- Some of the principles involved in the effect of bonding on the strength of a wall, have already been discussed under Stone Masonry. The other consideration is that of architectural appearance. The ...
- 151. Constructive Features
- On account of the comparatively high absorptive power of brick, it is especially necessary that they shall be thoroughly soaked with water before being laid in the wall. Fig. 36. English Bond. An...
- 152. Strength Of Brickwork
- As previously stated with respect to stone masonry, the strength of brick masonry is largely dependent upon the strength of the mortar; but, unlike stone masonry, the strength of brick masonry is, in ...
- 153. Methods Of Measuring Brickwork
- There is unfortunately a considerable variation in the methods of measuring brickwork, the variation depending on local trade customs. Brickwork is often paid for by the perch. The volume of a perch w...
- Rubble Concrete
- 159. Rubble concrete includes any class of concrete in which large stones are placed. The chief use of this concrete is in constructing dams, lock walls, breakwaters, retaining walls, and bridge piers...
- 163. Methods
- In depositing concrete under water, some means must be taken to prevent the separation of the materials while passing through the water. The three principal methods are as follows: (1) By means of cl...
- Clay Puddle
- Clay puddle consists of clay and sand-made into a plastic mass with water. It is used principally to fill cofferdams, and for making embankments and reservoirs water-tight. 167. Quality of Clay Opaq...
- The Importance of Foundations
- 169. It would be impossible to over-emphasize the importance of foundations, because the very fact that the foundations are underground and out of sight detracts from the consideration that many will ...
- 170. Classification Of Subsoil
- The character of soil on which it may be desired to place a structure, varies all the way from the most solid rock to that of semi-fluid soils whose density is but little greater than that of water. T...
- 171. Testing The Bearing Power
- The first step is to excavate the surface soil to the depth at which it would be convenient to place the foundation and at which the soil appears, from mere inspection, to be sufficiently firm for the...
- 172. Bearing Power Of Ordinary Soils
- A distinction must be maintained between the crushing strength of a cube of rock or soil, and the bearing power of that soil when it lies as a mass of indefinite extent under some structure. A soil ca...
- 173. Rock
- The ultimate crushing strength of stone varies greatly. The crushing strength is usually determined by making tests on small cubes. Tests made on prisms of a less height than width show a much greater...
- 174. Sand And Gravel
- Sand and gravel are often found together. Gravel alone, when of sufficient thickness, makes one of the firmest and best foundations. Dry sand or wet sand, when prevented from spreading laterally, form...
- 175. Clay
- There is great variation in clay soils, ranging from a very soft mass which will squeeze out in all directions when a very small pressure is applied, to shale or slate which will support a very heavy ...
- 176. Soft Or Semi-Liquid Soils
- The soils of this class include mud, silt, quicksand, etc., and it is necessary to remove them entirely or to reach a more solid stratum under the softer soil; or sometimes the soil can be consolidate...
- 177. Improving A Compressible Soil
- The general method of doing this consists in making the soil more dense. This may be done by driving a large number of piles into the soil, especially if the piles will be always under the water line ...
- 178. Preparing The Bed On Rock
- The preparation of a rock bed on which a foundation is to be placed, is a simple matter compared with that required for some soils on which foundations are placed. The bed-rock is prepared by cutting ...
- 179. Preparing The Bed On Firm Earth
- Under this heading is included hard clay, gravel, and clean, dry sand. The bed is prepared by digging a trench deep enough so that the bottom of the foundation is below the frost line, which is usuall...
- 180. Preparing The Bed On Wet Ground
- The chief trouble in making an excavation in wet ground, is in disposing of the water and preventing the wet soil from flowing into the excavation. In moderately wet soils, the area to be excavated is...
- 181. Footings
- The three requirements of a footing course are: (1) That the area shall be such that the total load divided by the area shall not be greater than the allowable unit-pressure on the subsoil. (2) That...
- 184. Beam Footings
- Steel, and even wood, in the form of beams, are used to construct very wide offsets. This is possible on account of their greater transverse strength. The general method of calculation is identical wi...
- 186. Steel I-Beam Footings
- The method of calculation is the same as for wooden beams, except that, since the strength of I-beams is not readily computable except by reference to tables in the handbooks published by the manufact...
- 188. Design Of Pier Footings
- The above designs for footings have been confined solely to the simplest case of the footing required for a continuous wall. A column or pier must be supported by a footing which is offset from the co...
- Types of Pile Foundations
- 190. Piles The term pile is generally understood to be a stick of timber driven in the ground to support a structure. This stick of timber is generally thought of as the body of a small tree; but ...
- 196. Wooden Bearing Piles
- Specifications for wooden piles generally require that they shall have a diameter of from 7 to 10 inches at the smaller end, and 12 to 15 inches at the larger end. Older specifications were quite rigi...
- 197. Bearing Power Of Piles
- Pile foundations act in a variable combination of two methods of support. In one case the piles are driven into the soil to such a depth that the frictional resistance of the soil to further penetrati...
- 201. Methods Of Driving Piles
- There are three general methods of driving piles - namely, by using (1) a falling weight; (2) the erosive action of a water-jet; or (3) the force of an explosive. The third method is not often employe...
- 205. Splicing Piles
- On account of the comparatively slight resistance offered by piles in swampy places, it sometimes becomes necessary to splice two piles together. The splice is often made by cutting the ends of the pi...
- 206. Pile Caps
- One practical trouble in driving piles, especially those made of soft wood, is that the end of the pile will become crushed or broomed by the action of the heavy hammer. Unless this crushed material i...
- 207. Sawing Off The Piles
- When the piles have been driven, they are sawed off to bring the top of them to the same elevation so that they will have an even bearing surface. When the tops of the piles are above water, this sawi...
- 208. Finishing The Foundations
- When the heads of the piles are above water, a layer of concrete is usually placed over them, the concrete resting on the ground between the piles, as well as on the piles themselves. It is necessary ...
- 209. Concrete And Reinforced-Concrete Piles
- A recent development of the use of concrete and reinforced concrete is to construct piles of this material. A reinforced-concrete pile foundation does not materially differ in construction from a timb...
- 210. Raymond Concrete Pile
- The Raymond concrete pile (Fig. 57) is constructed in place. A collapsible steel pile-core is encased in a thin, closely-fitting, sheet-steel shell. The core and shell are driven to the required depth...
- 211. Simplex Concrete Pile
- The different methods for producing the Simplex pile cover the two general classifications of concrete piles - namely, those moulded in place, and those moulded above ground and driven with a pile-dri...
- 212. Steel Piles
- In excavating for the foundation of a 16-story building at 14th Street and 5th Avenue, New York, a pocket of quicksand was discovered with a depth of about 14 feet below the bottom of the general exca...
- 213. Grillage
- A pile supports a load coming on an area of the foundation which is approximately proportional to the spacing between the piles. This area, of course, is several times the area of the top of the pile....
- 214. Cushing Pile Foundation
- A combination of steel, concrete, and wooden piles is known as the Cushing pile foundation. A cluster of piles is driven so that it may be surrounded by a wrought-iron or steel cylinder, which is plac...
- 215. Cost of Timber Piles
- In comparing the cost of timber piles and concrete or reinforced-concrete piles, the former are found to be much cheaper per linear foot than the latter. As already stated, however, there are many cas...
- 216. Piles For The Charles River Dam
- The first piles driven for the Cambridge (Mass.) conduit of the Charles River dam were on the Cambridge shore. On January 1, 1907, 9,969 piles had been driven in the Boston and Cambridge cofferdams, a...
- 217. Pile Foundation For Sea-Wall At Annapolis
- The piles for constructing the new sea-wall at Annapolis, Md., ranged in length from 70 feet to 110 feet. On the outer end of the breakwater, piles 70 feet to 85 feet were used. These piles were in on...
- 218. Cofferdams
- Foundations are frequently constructed through shallow bodies of water by means of cofferdams. These are essentially walls of clay confined between wooden frames, the walls being sufficiently impervio...
- 219. Cribs
- A crib is essentially a framework (called a birdcage by the English) which is made of timber, and which is filled with stone to weight it down. Such a construction is used only when the entire timber ...
- 220. Open Caissons
- A caisson is literally a box; and an open caisson is virtually a huge box which is built on shore and launched in very much the same way as a vessel, and which is sunk on the site of the proposed pier...
- 221. Hollow Cribs Or Caissons
- The foundation for a pier is sometimes made in the form of a box with walls several feet in thickness, but with a large opening or well through the center. Such piers may be sunk in situations where t...
- 222. Pneumatic Caissons
- A pneumatic caisson is essentially a large inverted box on which a pier is built, and inside of which work may be done because the water is forced out of the box by compressed air. If an inverted tumb...
- Retaining Walls
- 223. A retaining wall is a wall built to sustain the pressure of a vertical bank of earth. The stability of the wall is a comparatively simple matter when three quantities have been determined: (1) ...
- 224. Theoretical Formulae
- In spite of the unreliability of theoretical formulae, for the reasons given above, certain formulæ which are here quoted without demonstration are sometimes used for lack of better formulæ as a guide...
- 226. Methods Of Failure
- There are four distinct ways in which failure of a retaining wall may come about: (1) A retaining wall may fail by sliding bodily on its foundations or on any horizontal joint. This may occur when th...
- 227. Determining The Resultant Pressure
- Assume a very simple numerical case, as in Fig. 67. The weight of the wall and its line of action are very readily determined with accuracy. The base of the wall has been made 4/10 of the height, or 7...
- 228. Empirical Rules
- On account of the unsatisfactory nature of theoretical calculations, retaining walls are usually built by the application of purely empirical rules. Trautwine recommends that for a wall of cut stone o...
- 229. Failure Of Retaining Walls
- It is a significant fact that a retaining wall may apparently withstand the pressure against it for a period of several years, and may then slowly and gradually fail. This is sometimes due to the acti...
- 230. Placing Of Piers
- The outline design of a long bridge which requires several spans, involves many considerations: (1) If the river is navigable, at least one deep and wide channel must be left for navigation. The plac...
- 231. Usual Sizes And Shapes Of Piers
- The requirements for the bridge seats for the ends of the two spans resting on a pier, are usually such that a pier with a top as large as thus required, and with a proper batter to the faces, will ha...
- 233. Abutment Piers
- A pier is usually built comparatively thin in the direction of the line of the bridge, because the forces tending to produce overturning in that direction are usually very small. When a series of ston...
- 234. Abutments
- The term abutment usually implies not only a support for the bridge, but also what is virtually a retaining wall for the bank behind it. In the case of an arch bridge, the thrust of the arch is invari...
- Culverts
- 238. The terra culvert is usually applied to a small waterway which passes under an embankment of a railroad or a highway. The term is confined to waterways which are so small that standard plans are ...
- 243. Double Box Culverts
- A box culvert with a stone top is generally limited by practice to a span of 4 feet, although it would, of course, be possible to obtain thicker stones which would safely carry the load over a conside...
- 244. End Walls
- The ends of a culvert are usually expanded into end walls for the retention of the embankment. For the larger culverts, this may develop into two wing walls which act as retaining walls to prevent the...
- 245. Plain Concrete Culverts
- Culverts may be made of plain concrete, either in the box form or of an arched type, and having very much the same general dimensions as those already given for stone box culverts. They have a great a...
- 246. Arch Culverts
- Stone arches are frequently used for culverts in cases where the span is not great, and in which the design of the culvert (except for some small details regarding the wing walls) depends only on the ...
- 247. Drainage Of Foundations
- The excavation should be made to a sufficient depth so as to get below the frost line. The ground should be tamped thoroughly, and the excavation filled with cinders, broken stone, gravel, or brickbat...
- 248. Concrete Base
- The concrete for the base of walks is usually composed of 1 part Portland cement, 3 parts sand, and 5 parts stone or gravel. Sometimes, however, a richer mixture is used, consisting of 1 part cement, ...
- 249. Top Surface
- The wearing surface usually consists of 1 part Portland cement and 2 parts crushed stone or good, coarse sand, all of which will pass through a 1/4-inch mesh screen - thoroughly mixed so as to secure ...
- Concrete Curb
- 252. The curb is usually built just in advance of the sidewalk. The foundation is prepared similarly to that of walks. The curb is divided into lengths similar to that of the walk; and the joints ...
- 256. Introduction
- The theory of flexure in reinforced concrete is exceptionally complicated. A multitude of simple rules, formulae, and tables for designing reinforced-concrete work have been proposed, some of which ar...
- 257. Statics Of Plain Homogeneous Beams
- As a preliminary to the theory of the use of reinforced concrete in beams, a very brief discussion will be given of the statics of an ordinary homogeneous beam. Let A B (Fig. 89) represent a beam carr...
- 258. Economy Of Concrete For Compression
- The ultimate compressive strength of concrete is generally 2,000 pounds or over per square inch. With a factor of safety of four, a working stress of 500 pounds per square inch may be considered allow...
- 259. Economy Of Steel For Tension
- The ultimate tensile strength of ordinary concrete is rarely more than 200 pounds per square inch. With a factor of safety of four, this would allow a working stress of only 50 pounds per square inch....
- 260. Elasticity Of Concrete In Compression
- In computing the transverse stresses in a wooden beam or steel I-beam, it is assumed that the modulus of elasticity is uniform for all stresses within the elastic limit. Experimental tests have shown ...
- 261. Theoretical Assumptions
- The theory of reinforced-con-crete beams is based on the usual assumptions that: (a) The loads are applied at right angles to the axis of the beam. The usual vertical gravity loads supported by a hor...
- 262. Summation Of The Compressive Forces
- The summation of the compressive forces is evidently indicated by the area of the shaded portion in Fig. 97. The curve v N is a portion of a parabola. The area of the shaded portion between the curve ...
- 263. Center Of Gravity Of Compressive Forces
- This is also called the centroid of compression. The theoretical determination of this center of gravity is virtually the same as the determination of the center of gravity of the shaded area shown in...
- 264. Position Of The Neutral Axis
- According to one of the fundamental laws of mechanics, the sum of the horizontal tensile forces must be equal and opposite to the sum of the compressive forces. Ignoring the very small amount of tensi...
- 265. Ratio Of Moduli
- Theoretically there is an indefinite number of values of r, the ratio of the moduli of elasticity of the steel and the concrete. The modulus for steel is fairly constant at about 29,000,000 or 30,000,...
- 266. Percentage Of Steel
- The previous calculations have been made as if the percentage of the steel might be varied almost indefinitely. While there is considerable freedom of choice, there are limitations beyond which it is ...
- 267. Resisting Moment
- The moment which resists the action of the external forces is evidently measured by the product of the distance from the center of gravity of the steel to the centroid of compression of the concrete, ...
- 269. Determination Of Values For Frequent Use
- The above methods of calculation may be somewhat simplified by the determination, once for all, of constants which are in frequent use. For example, a very large amount of work is being done, using 1:...
- 270. Straight-Line Formulae
- The working unit-compressions for even the best grade of concrete are seldom allowed to exceed 600 pounds per square inch. An inspection of Fig. 93 will show that the curve from the point o to the poi...
- 271. Determination Of Values For Frequent Use
- For 1:3:5 concrete, using as before r = 12, and with a working value for c = 500, and s = 16,000, we find from Equation 28 that the economical percentage of steel equals: p = 1/2 500 500 X 12 16,000 ...
- 273. Table For Slab Computation
- The necessity of very frequently computing the required thickness of slabs, renders very useful a table such as is shown in Table XVI, which has been worked out on the basis of 1:3:5 concrete, and com...
- 274. Practical Methods Of Spacing Slab Bars
- It is too much to expect of workmen that bars will be accurately spaced when their distance apart is expressed in fractions of an inch. But it is a comparatively simple matter to require the workmen t...
- 275. Table For Computation Of Simple Beams
- In Table XVII has been computed for convenience the ultimate total load on rectangular beams made of average concrete (1:3:5) and with a width of 1 inch. For other widths, multiply by the width of the...
- 276. Resistance To The Slipping Of The Steel In The Concrete
- The previous discussion has considered merely the tension and compression in the upper and lower sides of the beam. A plain, simple beam resting freely on two end supports, has neither tension nor com...
- 277. Computation Of The Bond Required In Bars
- From Equation 19 we have the formula that the resisting moment at any point in the beam equals the area of the steel, times the unit tensile stress in the steel, times the distance from the steel to ...
- 278. Distribution Of Vertical Shears
- Beams which are tested to destruction frequently fail at the ends of the beams, long before the transverse strength at the center has been fully developed. Even if the bond between the steel and the c...
- 279. Methods Of Guarding Against Failure By Shear Or Diagonal Tension
- The failure of a beam by actual shear is almost unknown. The failures usually ascribed to shear are generally caused by diagonal tension. A solution of the very simple Equation 31 will indicate the in...
- 280. Detailed Design Of A Plain Beam
- This will be illustrated by a numerical example. A beam having a span of 18 feet supports one side of a 6-inch slab 8 feet wide which carries a live load of 200 pounds per square foot. In addition, a ...
- 281. Effect Of Quality Of Steel
- There is one very radical difference between the behavior of a concrete-steel structure and that of a structure composed entirely of steel, such as a truss bridge. A truss bridge may be overloaded wit...
- 282. Slabs On I-Beams
- There are still many engineers who will not adopt reinforced concrete for the skeleton structure of buildings, but who construct the frames of their buildings of steel, using steel I-beams for floor-g...
- 283. Reinforcement Against Temperature Cracks
- The modulus of elasticity of ordinary concrete is approximately 2,400,000 pounds per square inch, while its ultimate tensional strength is about 200 pounds per square inch. Therefore a pull of about 1...
- Strength Of T-Beams
- 284. When concrete beams are laid in conjunction with overlying floor-slabs, the concrete for both the beams and the slabs being laid in one operation, the strength of such beams is very much greater ...
- 285. Resisting Moments Of T-Beams
- These will be computed in accordance with straight-line formulae. There are three possible cases, according as the neutral axis is: (1) below the bottom of the slab (which is the most common case, and...
- 289. Width Of Flange
- The width (b') of the flange is usually considered to be equal to the width between adjacent beams, or that it extends from the middle of one panel to the middle of the next. The chief danger in such ...
- 290. Width Of Rib
- Since it is assumed that all of the compression occurs in the slab, the only work done by the concrete in the rib is to transfer the tension in the steel to the slab, to resist the shearing and web st...
- 291. Numerical Illustrations Of T-Beams
- Example1. Assume flint a 5-inch slab is supporting a load on beams spaced 8 feet apart, the beams having a span of 20 feet. Assume that the moment of the beam has been computed as 900,000 inch-pounds....
- 292. Approximate Formulae
- A great deal of T-beam computation is done on the basis that the center of pressure of the concrete is at the middle of the slab, and therefore that the lever-arm of the steel = d - 1/2 t. From these ...
- 293. Shearing Stresses Between Beam And Slab
- Every solution for T-beam construction should be tested at least to the extent of knowing that there is no danger of failure on account of the shear between the beam and the slab, either on the horizo...
- 295. Shear In A T-Beam
- The shear here referred to is the shear of the beam as a whole on any vertical section. It does not refer to the shearing stresses between the slab and the rib. The theoretical computation of the she...
- 296. Numerical Illustration Of Slab, Beam, And Girder Construction
- Assume a floor construction as outlined in skeleton form in Fig. 107. The columns are spaced 16 feet by 20 feet. Girders which support the alternate rows of beams, connect the columns in the 16-foot d...
- 296. Numerical Illustration Of Slab, Beam, And Girder Construction. Continued
- The total required area of 5.08 square inches may be divided into, say, 8 round bars 7/8 inch in diameter. These would have an area of 4.81 square inches. The discrepancy is about five per cent. These...
- 297. Simple Footings
- When a definite load, such as a weight carried by a column, is to be supported on a subsoil whose bearing power has been estimated at some definite figure, the required area of the footing becomes a p...
- 298. Continuous Beams
- Continuous beams are sometimes used to save the expense of underpinning an adjacent foundation or wall. These footings are designed as simple beams, but the steel is placed in the top of the beams. E...
- 299. Beam Footing
- When a simple footing supports a single column, the center of pressure of the column must pass vertically through the center of gravity of the footing, or there will be dangerous transverse stresses i...
- 300. Essential Principles
- The economy of a retaining wall of reinforced concrete lies in the fact that by adopting a skeleton form of construction and utilizing the tensional and transverse strength which may be obtained from ...
- 302. Base-Plate
- We shall assume that the base-plate has a width of one-half the height of the wall, or is 10 feet wide. If the inner face of the face-plate is 2 feet 6 inches from the toe, the width of the base-plate...
- 303. Buttresses
- The total pressure on a vertical strip one foot wide is 6,400 pounds. For a panel of 15 feet, this equals 96,000 pounds; and its moment about the base of the wall equals 96,000 X 80 inches = 7,680,000...
- 304. L-Shaped Retaining Walls
- Retaining walls of very moderate height may be constructed in L-shaped sections without buttresses, by thickening the walls at the base, and by using sufficient reinforcement to resist the transverse ...
- 305. General Principles
- The practical applications of the principles of reinforced concrete which have already been discussed, have been almost exclusively those required for sustaining vertical loads; but a structure consis...
- 306. Curtain Walls
- Vertical walls which are not intended to carry any weight, are sometimes made of reinforced concrete. They are then called curtain walls, and are designed merely to fill in the panels between the post...
- 307. Box Culverts
- The permanency of concrete, and particularly reinforced concrete, has caused its adoption in the construction of culverts of all dimensions, from a cross-sectional area of a very few square feet, to t...
- 309. Methods Of Reinforcement
- The laws of mechanics, as well as experimental testing on full-sized columns of various structural materials, show that very short columns, or even those whose length is ten times their smallest diame...
- 310. Design Of Columns
- It may be demonstrated by theoretical mechanics, that if a load is jointly supported by two kinds of material with dissimilar elasticities, the proportion of the loading borne by each will be in a rat...
- 311. Hooped Columns
- It has been found that the strength of a column is very greatly increased and even multiplied by surrounding the column by numerous hoops or bands or by a spiral of steel. The basic principle of this ...
- 312. Effect Of Eccentric Loading Of Columns
- It is well known that if a load on a column is eccentric, its strength is considerably less than when the resultant line of pressure passes through the axis of the column. The theoretical demonstratio...
- 313. Design
- The extreme durability of reinforced-concrete tanks, and their immunity from deterioration by rust, which so quickly destroys steel tanks, have resulted in the construction of a large and increasing n...
- 316. Imperfections
- To give a satisfactory finish to exposed surfaces of concrete is a rather difficult problem. Usually, when the forms are taken down, the surface of the concrete shows the joints, knots, and grain of t...
- 317. Plastering
- Plastering is not usually successful, although there are cases where a mixture of equal parts of cement and sand has apparently been successful; and when finished rough, it did not show any cracks. It...
- 318. Mortar Facing
- The following method has been adopted by the New York Central Railroad for giving a good finish to exposed concrete surfaces: The forms of 2-inch tongued-and-grooved pine were coated with soft soap, ...
- 319. Masonry Facing
- Concrete surfaces may be finished to represent ashlar masonry. The process is similar to stone-dressing; and any of the forms of finish employed for cut stone can be used for concrete. Very often, whe...
- 320. Stone Or Brick Facing
- A facing of stone or brick is frequently used for reinforced concrete, and is a very satisfactory solution of the problem of finish. The same care is required with a stone or brick facing as if the en...
- 321. Granolithic Finish
- Several concrete bridges in Philadelphia have been finished according to the following specifications; and their appearance is very satisfactory: Granolithic surfacing, where required, shall be comp...
- 322. The Acid Treatment
- This treatment consists in washing the surface of the concrete with diluted acid, then with an alkaline solution. The diluted acid is applied first, to remove the cement and expose the sand and stone;...
- 323. Dry Mortar Finish
- The dry mortar method consists of a dry, rich mixture, with finely crushed stone. The concrete is usually composed of 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, and 3 parts crushed stone known at the 1/4-inch size,...
- 324. Cast Slab Veneer
- Cast concrete slab veneer can be made of any desired thickness or size. It is set in place like stone veneer, with the remainder of the concrete forming the backing. It is usually cast in wooden mould...
- 325. Mouldings And Ornamental Shapes
- Concrete is now in demand in ornamental shapes for buildings and bridges. They may be either constructed in place, or moulded in sections and placed the same as cut stone. Plain cornices or panels are...
- 326. Colors For Concrete Finish
- Coloring matter has not been used very extensively in concrete work, except in ornamental work. It has not been very definitely determined what coloring matters are detrimental to concrete. Lampblack ...
- Colored Mortars
- Colors Given to Portland Cement Mortars Containing Two Parts River Sand to One Part Cement Dry Material Used Weight of Dry Coloring Matter to 100 Lbs. of Cement Cost of Coloring Ma...
- 328. Finish For Floors
- Floors in manufacturing buildings are often finished with a 1-inch coat of cement and sand, which is usually mixed in the proportions of 1 part cement to 1 part sand, or 1 part cement to 2 parts sand....
- 329. Efflorescence
- The white deposit found on the surface of concrete, brick, and stone masonry is called efflorescence. It is caused by the leaching of certain lime compounds, which are deposited on the surface by the ...
- 330. Laitance
- Laitance is whitish, spongy material that is washed out of the concrete when it is deposited in water. Before settling on the concrete, it gives the water a milky appearance. It is a semi-fluid mass, ...
- 331. Concrete Plant
- No general rule can be given for laying out a plant for concrete work. Every job is generally a problem by itself, and usually requires a careful analysis to secure the most economical results. Since ...
- 332. Concrete Mixers
- The best concrete mixer is the one that turns out the maximum of thoroughly mixed concrete at the minimum of cost for power, interest, and maintenance. The type of mixer with a complicated' motion giv...
- 333. Automatic Measures For Concrete Materials
- Mechanical measuring machines for concrete materials have not been very extensively developed. One difficulty is that they require the constant attention of an attendant, unless the materials are perf...
- 334. Source Of Power
- In each case the source of power for operating the mixer, conveyors, hoists, derricks, or cableways must be considered. If it is possible to run the machinery by electricity, it is generally economica...
- 335. Power For Mixing Concrete
- A vertical steam engine is generally used to operate the mixer. The smaller sizes of engines and mixers are mounted on the same frame; but on account of the weight, it is necessary to mount the larger...
- 336. Gasoline Engines
- Gasoline engines are used to some extent to operate concrete mixers. Their use so far has been limited chiefly to portable plants such as are used for street work. The fuel for the gasoline engine is ...
- 338. Friction Crab Hoist
- A friction crab hoist of the Ransome type is illustrated in Fig. 135. The same engine that drives the mixer can be used to operate the crab hoist. By means of a sprocket-wheel and chain, this crab hoi...
- 339. Electric Motors
- Very often the cycle of operation of a hoist is of an intermittent character. The power required is at a Table XX. Tables Of Sizes Of The Lambert Hoisting Engines Horse-Power Usually Rated ...
- 340. Hoisting Lumber And Steel
- In constructing large rein-forced-concrete buildings, usually a separate hoist is used to hoist the steel and lumber for the forms. This hoist may be equipped with either an electric motor or an engin...
- 341. Hoisting Buckets
- In building construction, concrete is usually hoisted in automatic dumping buckets. The bucket is designed to slide up and down a light framework of timber, as shown in Fig. 138, and to dump automatic...
- 342. Charging Mixers
- The mixers are usually charged by means of wheelbarrows, although other means are sometimes used. Fig. 140 shows the type of wheelbarrow generally used for this work. The capacity varies from 2 cubic ...
- 343. Transporting Concrete
- Concrete is usually transported by wheelbarrows, carts, cars, or derricks, although other means are frequently used. It is essential, in handling or transporting concrete, that care be taken to preven...
- 344. Boilers
- Upright tubular boilers are generally used to supply steam for concrete mixers and hoists operated by steam engines, when they are isolated. For the smaller sizes of mixers, the boilers are on the sam...
- 346. Plant For Ten-Story Building
- The plant used by Cramp & Company in constructing a reinforced-concrete building for the Boyertown Burial Casket Company, Philadelphia, will be described, to show the arrangement of the plant rather t...
- 347. Plant For The Locust Realty Company Building
- The plant used for constructing a five-story reinforced-concrete building, 117 feet by 200 feet, for the Locust Realty Company, by Moore & Company, Inc., is a good example of a centrally located plant...
- 348. Concrete Plant For Street Work
- A self-propelling mixing and spreading machine has been found very desirable for laying concrete base for street pavements. Fig. 148 illustrates a plant of this kind, which has been devised by the Mun...
- 349. Concrete Block Machines
- There are two general types of hollow concrete block machines on the market - those with a vertical face and those with a horizontal face. In making blocks with the vertical-faced machine, the face of...
- 350. Sand Washing
- It becomes necessary sometimes to wash dirty sand when clean sand can be secured only at a high cost, while the dirty sand can be easily obtained. If only a small quantity is to be washed, it may be d...
- 351. General Requirements
- In actual construction work, the cost of forms is a large item of expense and offers the best field for the exercise of ingenuity. For economical work, the design should consist of a repetition of ide...
- 352. Forms For Columns
- In constructing columns, the forms are usually erected complete, the full height of the columns; and concrete is dumped in at the top. The concrete must be mixed very wet, as it cannot be rammed very ...
- 354. Forms For Locust Realty Company Building
- The forms used in constructing the building for the Locust Realty Company (the mixing plant has already been described), present one rather unusual feature. The lumber for the slabs, beams, girders, a...
- 355. Cost Of Forms For Buildings
- An analysis of the cost of forms for an eight-story building is given by R. E. Lamb (Concrete Engineering, December, 1907). The basis of his estimate is made on using 7/8-inch by 6-inch tongued-and-gr...
- 356. Cost Of Forms For Garage
- Some interesting cost data are given by Mr. Reygondeau de Gratresse, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E. (Engineering-Contracting, October 30, 1907), on the cost of forms used in erecting a reinforced-concrete g...
- 357. An Adjustable Clamp
- Fig. 164 illustrates an adjustable clamp for holding forms together. It is commonly used to hold the plank forming the sides of a beam or girder in place; it is used also in clamping the opposite side...
- 358. Forms For Conduits And Sewers
- Forms for conduits and sewers must be strong enough not to give way, or to become deformed, while the concrete is being placed and rammed; and must be rigid enough not to warp from being alternately w...
- 360. The Blaw Steel Forms
- The Blaw collapsible steel forms,asshown in Fig. 167, appear to be the only successful steel forms so far in general use. There have been many attempts to devise steel centering for column, girder, an...
- Centers For Arches
- 362. The centers for stone, plain concrete, and reinforced-concrete arches are constructed in a similar manner. A reinforced-concrete arch of the same span and designed for the same loading, will not ...
- 363. Classes Of Centers
- There are two general classes of centers - those which act as a truss; and those in which the support, at the intersection of braces, rests on a pile or footing. Trusses are used when it is necessary ...
- 364. Safe Stresses In Lumber For Wooden Forms
- In Table XXI are given the safe loads which may be placed on beams of long-leaf yellow pine, of various depths, on various spans. *From Handbook of the Cambria Steel Company. Table XXII. * Strength ...
- 366. Safe Loads On Wooden Columns
- The values given in Table XXII are based on the formula: P = Fx700+ 15c 700 + 15c + c2 in which, P = Ultimate strength of timber in pounds per square inch; F = Ultimate crushing strength of timber;...
- 367. Form For Arch At 175th Street, New York
- In constructing the 175th Street Arch in New York City, the forms were built so that they could be easily moved. The arch is elliptical and is built of hard-burned brick and faced with granite. The sp...
- 309. Bending Details
- The full bending details of the bars should be made before the reinforcing steel is ordered for any rein-forced-concrete work that is to be constructed. It has been the common practice for contractors...
- 370. Tables For Bending Bars
- The usual outfit for bending the bars cold consists of a strong table, a vise, and a lever with two short prongs. The outline to which the bar is to be bent is laid out on the table, and holes are bor...
- 371. The Hunt Bender
- The bar-bending device shown in Fig. 175 was devised by Mr. R. S. Hunt, C. E., and has been used by him to bend 1 1/4-inch bars. In bending bars of this size, it is not necessary to heat them; and the...
- 372. Beams And Girders
- Fig. 176 shows the bending details of the bars for a beam or girder in which six bars are required for the reinforcement three of which are turned up, one at a distance of 3 feet, and two at a distanc...
- 373. Slab Bars
- To secure the advantage of a continuous slab, it is very often required that a percentage of the slab bars, usually one-half, shall be turned up over each beam. Construction companies have different m...
- 374. Stirrups
- Fig. 180 shows the bending of the bars for stirrups. The ends of the stirrups rest on the forms and support the beam bars, which assist in keeping these bars in place. The ends of the stirrups seldom ...
- 375. Column Bands
- In Fig. 181 two types of column bands are shown. Type a shows bands for a square or a round column; and type b, bands for a rectangular column. The bar which forms the band is bent close around each v...
- 376. Spacers
- Fig. 182, Spacers for holding the bars in place in beams and girders, have been successfully used. These spacers are made of heavy sheet iron. They are fastened to the stirrups by means of the loops i...
- 377. Unit-Frames
- Among the patented methods of fastening the bars together for beams and girders, is the Unit Girder Frame System. The loose bars are bent and made into a frame as shown in Fig. 183. All this work is d...
- Bonding Old And New Concrete
- The place and manner of making breaks or joints in floor construction at the end of a day's work, is a subject that has been much discussed by engineers and construction companies. But there has not b...
- 378. Methods Of Making Bonds
- First Method. Fig. 184 shows a sectional view of one method of making a break at the end of the day's work, which has been used very extensively and successfully. The stirrups and slab bars form the m...
- 381. Buck Building
- Fig. 187 shows the typical structural floor-plan, above the first floor, of a building constructed for .J. C. Buck at Fifth and Appletree Streets, Philadelphia. The architects were Ballinger & Perrot...
- Completed Concrete Piles
- The five piles in the center are to serve as the foundation for a chimney. A comparison with the barrel shown in the picture will give an accurate idea of the size of the piles. The floor-beams were ...
- 382. Mershon Building
- Fig. 193 shows the plan of the foundations and the typical layout of the structural members for each floor of a building constructed by Cramp & Company on the south side of Walnut Street, between Nint...
- 383. Erben-Harding Company Building
- The exterior and interior of a factory building, designed and constructed by Wm. Steele & Sons Company for the Erben-Harding Company, Philadelphia, are shown in Figs. 197 and 198. This building is 100...
- 384. Swarthmore Shop Building
- In constructing the new shop building at Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, in 1906, concrete blocks were used for the side walls, and the floors were constructed of reinforced concrete. Th...
- 385. Apartment House
- In designing a reinforced-concrete apartment house which was constructed at Juniper and Spruce Streets, Philadelphia, it was desirable to have a floor system that was flat on the under side, except fo...
- 387. The Mcgraw Building
- The McGraw Building, New York City, completed in 1907, is a good example of a reinforcedconcrete building. The building has a frontage of 126 feet and a depth of 90 feet, and is 11 stories in height. ...
- 388. Fridenberg Building
- In Fig. 206 are shown the plans of stairs constructed in the Fridenberg building at 908 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. This building is 24 feet by 60 feet, and is seven stories high. Structurally the...
- 389. General Electric Company Building
- An interesting feature of a large reinforced-concrete building constructed for the General Electric Company at Fort Wayne, Ind.,is the design of the lintels. As shown in Fig. 207, the bottom of the li...
- 390. Water-Basin And Circular Tanks
- Figs. 208 and 209 illustrate sections of the walls of the pure water basin and the 50-foot circular tanks which have been partly described in Part I under the heading of Waterproofing. The pure water...
- 392. Bronx Sewer, New York
- In Fig. 211 is shown a section of one of the branch sewers that is being constructed in the Borough of the Bronx, New York City. A large part of this sewer is located in a salt marsh where water and u...
- 393. Girder Bridge
- The reinforced-concrete bridge shown in Fig. 212 was constructed near Allentown, Pennsylvania, in 1907. Fig. 212, Girder Bridge near Allentown, Pa. This type of bridge has been found to be econom...
- Masonry And Reinforced Concrete. Part V. Theory Of Arches
- 394. The mechanics of the arch are almost invariably solved by a graphical method, or by a combination of the graphical method with numerical calculations. This is done, not only because it ...
- 398. Statics Of A Linear Arch
- We shall assume that the lines in Fig. 215 by which we have represented forces F, G, H, and K represent struts which are hinged at their intersections with the forces A, B, and C, which represent load...
- 399. Graphical Demonstration Of Laws Of Statics By Student
- The student should test all this work in Statics by drawing figures very carefully and on a large scale, in accordance with the general instructions as described in the sections, and should purposely ...
- 400. Equilibrium Polygon With Horizontal Closing Lines
- In Fig. 216, have been drawn the same forces A, B, and C, having the same relative positions as in Fig. 215. The lines of action of the two vertical forces R' and R have also been drawn in the same r...
- 401. Equilibrium Polygon For Non-Vertical Forces
- The above method is rendered especially simple, owing to the fact that the forces are all vertical. When the forces are not vertical, the method becomes more complicated. The principle will first be i...
- 402. Definitions Of Terms Pertaining To Arch Masonry
- The following are definitions of technical terms frequently used in connection with the subject of arch masonry (see Fig. 218): Abutment - The masonry which supports an arch at either end, and which ...
- Kinds Of Arches
- 403. Arches are variously described according to the shape of the intrados, and also according to the form of the soffit: Basket-Handled Arch - One whose intrados consists of a series of circular ...
- Voussoir Arches
- 404. Definition A voussoir arch is an arch composed of separate stones, called voussoirs, which are so shaped and designed that the line of pressures between the stones is approximately ...
- 405. Distribution Of The Pressure Between Two Voussoirs
- The unit-pressure on any joint is assumed to varv in accordance with the location of the center of pressure, as is illustrated in Fig. 219. In the first case, where the center of pressure is over the ...
- 407. Depth Of Keystone
- The proper depth of keystone for an arch should theoretically depend on the.total pressure on the keystone of the arch as developed from the force diagram; and the depth should be such that the unit-p...
- 409. Plotting The Reduced Load Line
- We shall assume that the earth or cinder fill on top of the arch has a thickness of one foot at the crown, and that it is level on top. We shall also assume that the arch ring is composed of stones wh...
- 410. Drawing The Load Line For The First Condition Of Loading
- When the load is uniformly distributed over the entire arch, the load is symmetrical, and we need to consider only one-half of the arch. The sections of the load line for the force diagram correspondi...
- 412. Test For The Third Condition, Involving Concentrated Load
- The method of making this test is exactly similar to that previously given; but on account of a load eccentrically placed, the force diagram will be more distorted than in either of the cases previous...
- 414. Location Of True Equilibrium Polygon
- In the above demonstration, it is assumed that the true equilibrium polygon will pass through the center of each abutment, and also through the center of the kevstone; and the test then consists in de...
- 415. Design Of Abutments
- The force diagram of Fig. 223, which shows the pressures between the voussoirs of the arch, also gives, for any condition of loading, the pressure of the last voussoir against the abutment. A glance a...
- 417. Determination Of Load On A Voussoir
- The previous determinations have been confined to arches which are assumed to be acted on solely by vertical forces. For flat segmental arches, or even for elliptical arches where the arch is very muc...
- 417. Determination Of Load On A Voussoir. Part 2
- Fig. 226. Resultant Forces Acting on Voussoirs of a Full-Centered Arch. We shall assume that the arch carries a railroad track and a heavy class of traffic. The weight of roadbed and track may be com...
- 417. Determination Of Load On A Voussoir. Part 3
- Forces Nos. 1 to 17 are drawn in the force diagram of Fig. 227 at the scale of 4,000 pounds per inch. Forces 1 to 8, inclusive, have a resultant whose direction is given by the line marked R1 which j...
- 419. Intensity Of Pressures On The Voussoirs Of The Arch
- An inspection of the equilibrium polygon for the first condition of loading, shows that it passes everywhere within the middle third. The maximum total pressure on a joint, of course, occurs at the ab...
- 420. Stability Of The Pier Between The Arches
- The stability of the pier on the right-hand side of the arch in Fig. 227, is determined on the assumption of the concentrated locomotive loading on the left-hand end of the next arch which is at the r...
- 421. Technical Meaning
- All of the previous demonstrations in arches have been made on the basis that the arch is made up of voussoirs, which are acted on only by compressive forces. The demonstration would still remain the ...
- 422. Advantages And Economy
- The durability of concrete, and the perfect protection that it affords to the reinforcing steel which is buried in it, give a great advantage to these materials in the construction of arch ribs. Altho...
- 423. Elements Of Integral Calculus
- It has been found impracticable to develop the theory of elastic arches without employing some of the fundamental principles of integral calculus; but an effort will be made to explain each one of the...
- 424. Classification Of Arch Ribs
- Arch ribs may be classified in three ways: first, those which have fixed ends and no hinges; second, those which have a hinge or joint at each end; and third those which are hinged at both ends and in...
- 426. Moment Of Inertia Of Any Section
- Assume that Fig. 229 represents a portion of the cross-section of an arch at any point, the particular portion having a total depth h equal to the thickness of the arch at that point, and a unit-width...
- 428. Position Of VM
- We may locate vm by satisfying Equation 51, which may be written dxz = 0. But this integral is represented by the shaded area (Fig. 231), which is the equivalent of saying that the segment OCB = the r...
- 429. Weight And Thickness Of Arch
- Theoretically, this should be known before any calculations are made; but since the weight of filling and pavement are always large, and their unit-weight is but little less than that of the concrete,...
- 430. Intrados
- The span and rise are frequently predetermined. Fortunately this method is applicable to almost any form of curve, if the change in curvature is not too extreme. Even if the arch is very flat and the ...
- 431. Dimensions Of Arch
- We shall apply the above principles to the design of a segmental arch having a span of 60 feet and a rise of 15 feet. To find the radius for the intrados which will fulfil these conditions, we may not...
- 432. Position Of Vm
- When the center line of the rib is a parabola, we may lay off vm by drawing it at a height 2/3 of the rise above the line OB. Even when it is a circle, it is comparatively easy to compute with mathema...
- 433. Laying Off The Load Line
- We shall assume that the arch carries a filling of earth or cinders weighing 100 pounds per cubic foot, that the top of this filling is level, and that it has a thickness of one foot above the crown. ...
- 434. Trial Equilibrium Polygon
- Commencing at the point 0, we draw the segments of the trial equilibrium polygon parallel with the rays in the force diagram which run from the point O1 ,to the load line, and obtain the trial equilib...
- 435. Pole Distance Of The True Equilibrium Polygon
- It is necessary to satisfy Equation 58. We shall consider in this case that the various points in the arch-rib curve and in the special equilibrium y z' yz' z' z ...
- 436. Locating The True Equilibrium Polygon
- We know that the segments of the true equilibrium polygon must be parallel with the rays of the force diagram which has its pole at O3, and also that it must pass through the points h and k on the lin...
- 437. Maximum Moment Under This Loading
- An inspection of the diagram shows what might be expected, that the maximum moment occurs on the right-hand side of the arch, nearly under the center of the live load and very near to load 16. At this...
- 438. Maximum Thrust Due To This Loading
- The thrust at airy-point of the arch is measured by the projection onto the tangent to the arch at that point, of the corresponding ray of the force diagram. Since the rays of the force diagram which ...
- 439. Shear At Any Section
- The shear at any section is measured by the projection onto the normal to the arch rib, of the corresponding ray of the force diagram. It is seldom that the shear is a serious factor in the design of ...
- 440. Temperature Stresses
- The provision which should be made for temperature stresses in a concrete arch, is often a very serious matter, for the double reason that the stresses are sometimes very great, and also because the w...
- 441. Stresses Due To Rib Shortening
- The compression in a rib results in shortening the arch rib very slightly; and this produces precisely the same effect in altering the moment as an equivalent fall in temperature. For example, in the ...
- 442. Testing This Arch For Other Loading
- A live load of 200 pounds per square foot over the entire arch would unquestionably increase the thrust over the entire arch, especially at the abutments. The stress due to shortening will of course b...
- 443. Testing An Arch With Variable Moments Of Inertia
- It has already been indicated how the equations on which the arch theory is based may be simplified when the moment of inertia is constant. The above problem was worked out on the basis that the mome...
- 444. General Principles
- The construction of hinged arches of reinforced concrete is very rare, but is not unknown, and will probably come into greater use when their advantages are more fully realized. We may consider that ...
- 445. Arch Of Two Hinges
- The third of Equations 48 must be satisfied, which practically means that Equation 54 must be satisfied. This means that we must find a trial equilibrium polygon, and increase or decrease its pole dis...
- 447. Description Of Two Reinforced-Concrete Arches
- In Figs. 234 and 235 are shown the details and sections of two reinforced-concrete arches having fixed abutments, which have been recently erected. The first bridge has a nominal span of 60 feet betwe...
- 448. Stone Arch
- In Fig. 236 is shown a stone arch on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad at Pelhamville, N. Y. This arch was constructed over a highway, and the length of its axis is sufficient for four overh...
- Practical Masonry And Reinforced Concrete Test Questions
- In the foregoing sections of this Cyclopedia numerous illustrative examples are worked out in detail in order to show the application of the various methods and principles. Accompanying these are samp...
- Foreword Vol5
- THE rapid evolution of constructive methods in recent years, as illustrated in the use of steel and concrete, and the increased size and complexity of buildings, has created the necessity for an autho...
- Table Of Contents V5
- VOLUME V Steel Construction . . . . By E. A. Tucker Page *11 Structural Elements of a Building - The Enclosing Walls - Interior Columns and Bearing Partitions - Floors - Roof - Use of Handbooks - Met...
- Steel Construction. Part I. The Structural Elements Of A Building
- From the structural point of view, a building consists of the following parts: 1. The foundations. 2. The enclosing walls. 3. The columns and bearing partitions. 4. The floors. 5. The roof. If t...
- The Enclosing Walls
- Exterior walls, in general, are of five kinds: 1. Masonry walls of brick or stone, supporting their own weight and the adjacent floor and roof loads. 2. Masonry walls supporting their own weight, bu...
- Interior Columns And Bearing Partitions
- These are classed together because, either jointly or separately, they serve to carry to the foundations the portion of the loads not carried by the wall columns and exterior walls. When a partition t...
- The Floors
- The elements of the floor are: 1. The arch, which receives the load directly. . 2. The beams, between which the arch springs. 3. The girders, carrying the beams. 4. The ceiling. Arches. There are...
- The Roof
- A roof is essentially the same as a floor as regards the elements of construction. Its peculiar features are the pitch, openings for skylights, etc., support of pent houses, of tanks, etc. The pitch ...
- Use Of Handbooks On Steel
- The steel used in a building is in the form of single pieces, or combinations of one or more pieces, to which the general term shapes is applied. All shapes are made by rolling out the rectangular p...
- Use Of Handbooks On Steel. Continued
- Fig.37. COVER ANGLE. Fig.38 OBTUSE ANGLE. Fig.39 SAFE ANGLE. The square root angles are used where it is necessary to eliminate the fillet. The cover angles are for use in splicing so that...
- Use Of Tables
- Since all steel designs are dependent upon the use of the foregoing shapes, it will be seen that it is necessary to refer constantly to tables containing their dimensions and other characteristics cal...
- Use Of Tables. Part 2
- In practice, spans not exceeding twenty times the flange width are not considered to require side support. In some cases there must be made still another modification of the loads indicated by these ...
- Use Of Tables. Part 3
- If the fibre stress in the beam due to the loading was less than 16,000, the deflection would be obtained by multiplying the result given in the table by the ratio of given fibre stress to 16,000. Th...
- Use Of Tables. Part 4
- These different functions can all be calculated quite readily, and it is important that the student should understand how these are obtained. For this purpose the functions of a 24-inch 80-lb. beam wi...
- Use Of Tables. Part 5
- Since the radius of gyration depends on the moment of inertia and the area of section, it follows that for a given section, the radius of gyration about two axes will be proportional to their moments ...
- Building Laws And Specifications
- The requirements of the Building Departments of different cities vary considerably as regards detail matters, but are in quite close agreement on points affecting the strength of structures. The foll...
- Building Laws And Specifications. Continued
- One reason for this variation in factors of safety for different materials is that certain materials vary more than others in their internal structure; and accordingly in some cases there is a greater...
- The Steel Frame
- The problems to be met with in laying out the steel frame and designing the different elements are never twice the same but, vary with each special case. Different classes of buildings give rise to di...
- The Steel Frame. Continued
- The location and position of the main interior columns having thus been fixed, the next thing is to locate any columns whose position is dependent on special features. In this case, the corridor arra...
- Fireproof And Fire-Resisting Materials
- The functions of fire-resisting materials are threefold: 1. To carry loads. 2. To protect all structural steel 3. To serve as noncombustible partitions or barriers. The specific uses are, in gener...
- Floor And Roof Arches
- Terra Cotta Floor and Roof Arches. Burnt-clay products include brick, porous tile, and hard or dense tile. The latter two are commonly called terra cotta. The use of brick for arches between beams ha...
- Floor And Roof Arches. Part 2
- Plate III shows types of Expanded Metal Floor Construction. Fig. 54 shows System No. 9, which can be adapted to long spans. It is not the general type of this form of construction, however, as THE...
- Floor And Roof Arches. Part 3
- The strength of this system is considered to be simply that of the concrete arch, the wire center being intended merely for the support of the concrete until it has set, and for a permanent center upo...
- Floor And Roof Arches. Part 4
- The Building Departments of all cities have required special and severe tests of full-sized arches to be made before allowing any of the types to be used in construction. Their use is undoubtedly grow...
- Floor And Roof Arches. Part 5
- The results of some tests made under different conditions are here given: A fire and water test on a concrete expanded metal floor composed of 6 1/2 inches of concrete mixed in the proportion of 1 pa...
- Selection Of System
- Not any single system, probably, would be used in all cases even if the designer were to choose without any conditions affecting his selection. Some systems are naturally better adapted than others to...
- Hollow Brick Fob Flat Arches
- Width of Span Between Beams. Depth of Arch. Weight per Square Foot, 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet 0 inches. 6 inches. 27 pounds. 4 0 ,, ...
- Partitions
- Partitions are of terra cotta, wire lath and plaster, and plaster board. Illustrations of each are given by Plate VI, Figs. 71 to 77. The element of strength does not form a specially important con-s...
- Partitions. Continued
- The wire lath partitions cannot be considered fireproof until they are plastered. Here, accordingly, the plaster forms an essential feature of the partition; and in case of any considerable portion of...
- Steel Construction. Part II. Beams And Girders
- Determination of Loads, The first step in the calculatior of a beam or girder is to determine the exact amount of load to be carried, and its distribution. Loads may be uniformly distributed or concen...
- Steel Construction. Part II. Beams And Girders. Part 2
- If the wall is solid above the opening for a height greater than the span of the opening, the masonry, if of brick, will arch to some extent and thus relieve the lintel of a portion of the load. Pract...
- Steel Construction. Part II. Beams And Girders. Part 3
- YOUNGLOVE BUILDING, EUCLID AVENUE, CLEVELAND, OHIO. Watterson & Schneider, Architects, Cleveland, Ohio. This Structure, Built in 1906 at a Cost of about $40,000, is 73 Feet Wide in Front, Diminishin...
- Steel Construction Problems For Practice
- 1. Given a 15-inch 60-lb. beam on a span, center to center of bearings, of 22 feet 6 inches. Required the safe load uniformly distributed at a fibre stress of 16,000 lbs. per square inch. UNTELS T...
- Columns
- A column ordinarily has to carry only vertical loads. There are conditions in which it has to resist lateral forces, but these will be taken up under the heads of High Buildings and Mill Buildings....
- Columns. Part 2
- To facilitate the erection, connections of beams to columns should always be by a shelf having the proper shear angles under, rather than by side connections. Another advantage in this form of connect...
- Columns. Part 3
- Plate IX. COLUMN Schedule Story heights. Cols. Nos 1.2.3.4.7.9.11. 12.13.1718.20. 21.22.26 Cols. Nos 5.6.8.10.14.15. 16,19.23.24.25. 27.28.34 Cols. Nos 29. 30.31.3...
- Trusses
- For spans under 35 feet, a riveted or beam girder is ordinarily-more economical than a truss, unless the conditions of loading are peculiar. Selection of Type. The type of truss selected depends gene...
- Connections And Details Of Framlng
- Figs. 121 to 126 show types of connections of beams to girders and columns. Connections to girders are nearly always of these standard forms, which are the Carnegie standards. In certain cases, indivi...
- Connections And Details Of Framlng. Part 2
- TYPICAL FLOOR-PLAN OF STEEL WORK IN OFFICE BUILDING FOR THE CHICAGO & NORTHWESTERN RAILWAY COMPANY, CHICAGO. Frost & Granger, Architects; E. C. & R. M. Shankland, Engineers. Setting of steel work ...
- Connections And Details Of Framlng. Part 3
- In inspecting cast iron, tests must be made to determine whether or not it comes up to the requirements of the specifications as regards quality. Inspection must also be made to see if the material is...
- Connections And Details Of Framlng. Part 4
- Each piece must be detailed fully, with cuts, punchings, and framings clearly shown. In general, a standard size beam sheet, column sheet, and girder sheet are used; truss sheets are made to standard ...
- Carnegie Steel Company
- Fig. 149. Individual estimators have different methods of separating the different classes of material. The following are the general divisions of material: I. Beams and channels 15 inches and u...
- Foundations
- There are three general types of foundations. (1) Spread foundations. (2) Foundations to bed rock by piers or caissons. (3) Pile foundations. The form of foundation used depends largely on the cha...
- Foundations. Part 2
- The factor of safety should be from 2 to 12, varying with the accuracy of the knowledge of the loads to be carried and with the closeness with which the formulas used fits the conditions of the specia...
- Foundations. Part 3
- Moist clay in inclined strata is liable to slide when loaded. Clay mixed with sand or gravel will bear more load than pure clay. Sand will bear more load than ordinary clay, and when in beds of suffic...
- Foundations. Part 4
- While the concrete and imbedded steel beams in a footing are undoubtedly much stronger than the simple beams, it is not customary to figure the beams in such cases by the theory applying to steel imbe...
- High Building Construction
- Origin of the Types. Iron has been employed extensively in buildings for many years. The first building in this country of what is now known as the skeleton type of construction, was the Home Fire Ins...
- High Building Construction. Continued
- The effect of wind blowing against the exposed surface of a building is (1) To produce an overturning moment tending to tip the whole building over, (2) To shear off the connections of the columns t...
- Hill Building Construction
- This term must not be confused with mill construction. The latter term applies to what is sometimes called slow burning construction. This is a construction which is the result of the standardizin...
- Steel Construction, Part III. Definitions And Abbreviations
- In all structural steel detailing certain abbreviations are so commonly used that it is essential at the outset for the student to be familiar with them. The more common are given below: PL ...
- Steel Construction, Part III. Definitions And Abbreviations. Continued
- Eye Bars. These are used in pin connected trusses and structures to take care of tensile strains. The heads at each end are formed by upsetting machines and the pin holes afterward bored out. See page...
- Purpose And Use Of Details
- A shop drawing is a drawing which gives all the information necessary to lay out, cut, punch, and rivet the piece shown. It is the medium by which instructions are conveyed from the engineer's office ...
- Purpose And Use Of Details. Part 2
- In the case of columns, girders and trusses, this practice would not do, as the details are too complicated and it is necessary to show all details exactly in their true relation in order to make them...
- Purpose And Use Of Details. Part 3
- Fig. 189. It is very important to show on all shop drawings the diameter of rivets to be used in the work, and if different sizes of rivets or rivet noles for field rivets occur in the same member...
- Determination Of Shearing Value Of Rivets
- The resistance of a rivet to shearing along one plane is the area of the rivet multiplied by the shearing strength of the metal per unit of area. If d - the diameter in inches of the rivet S = the u...
- Determination Of Bearing Value Of Rivets
- In this case it is the metal which bears on the rivet or which the rivet bears on, which has to be considered; this is in compression and liable to failure, therefore, just as is the metal in a column...
- Standard Connections
- As previously stated, beam connections to girders and columns are generally made after standard forms for the different size beams. From an inspection of these standard connections it will be seen tha...
- Standard Connections. Part 2
- A good many designers use only one stiifener under a beam or girder, and as the load to the stiffener comes from the outstanding leg, this brings a moment on the rivets through the other leg of the st...
- Standard Connections. Part 3
- Fig. 196. The first set of holes from the left-hand end in the web is for the connection of an 8-in. beam framed to this beam. Note that 5 5/16 in., the spacing horizontally of these holes, and 2 ...
- Detailing From Framing Plan
- The student should now become familiar with detailing from a framing or setting plan. Fig. 199 shows such a plan upon which is all the information necessary to detail the different members. The inform...
- Detailing From Framing Plan. Continued
- Fig. 203. Fig. 204. As the beam is a 15-in. beam, while on one side is a 12-in. terra cotta arch, it is necessary to provide an angle on this side. The bottoms of the 9-in. beams are 3 in. abo...
- Column Details
- There are five main features in the detailing of a column. 1. The base or foot of the column. 2. The shaft or the line members composing the column. 3. The cap or top of the column. 4. The connect...
- Column Details. Part 2
- In the case of the web view, it is generally necessary to show what is on both sides of the web, as except in special cases, one elevation only of the web is given. Fig. 210 gives the detail of the c...
- Column Details. Part 3
- Where box columns are used, it is better to keep the spacing back to back of channel the same throughout all sections. If this is less in the upper sections, it brings the load of this section on t...
- Column Details. Part 4
- Taking one rib and the base half way on each side between the next rib would give a section at the box, which may be taken as the fixed end, similar to Fig. 222. Calculate then the position of the neu...
- Column Details. Part 5
- 10750 - 399 L r in which L = length of column in feet r = least radius of gyration. For example, suppose we wish to select a size of pipe suitable for supporting a load of 25,000 pounds, and having a ...
- Steel Construction. Part IV. Riveted Girders
- Functions of Flanges and Web. Riveted girders are made up of two general parts (a) - the top and bottom members - which are termed, respectively, the top and bottom flanges; and one or more vertical p...
- Allowable Values
- For Buildings: ft (tension) = 15,000 pounds per square inch, net area. fc (compression) = 12,000 pounds per square inch, gross area, reduced for ratio of unsupported length to width of flange. fs (she...
- Steel Construction Problems #1
- 1. Determine by the method previously described the bottom flange section of a girder 28 inches deep between centers of gravity of flanges, and having a bending moment of 3,500,000 inch-pounds. The fl...
- Steel Construction Problems #2
- 1. Given a girder 50 feet long, having a flange section of two angles 6 x 4 x 1/2, and 2 cover-plates 10 x inch. Construct a parabola on this length as an axis, and determine the distances betw...
- Steel Construction Problems #3
- 1. Determine the pitch at end of girder having a reaction of 60,000 pounds, with web-plate 30 inches deep and inch thick. Assume effective depth between center of gravity of flanges, 28 inches...
- Steel Construction Problems #4
- 1. As an illustration of the use of the exact formula for pitch of rivets, the following problem will be worked out: Take the girder given in the problem illustrating the cutting-off of flange plate....
- Steel Construction Problems #4. Part 2
- In many cases, even the loading on the girder might not be given. In such case, it would have to be calculated from the general plans showing amount and distribution of floor and wall loads. If the lo...
- Steel Construction Problems #4. Part 3
- One plate must, of course, be made the full length of the girder. The length of the other plate is determined as previously described, and a length added at each end sufficient to get rivets equal to ...
- Steel Construction Problems #5
- Make a complete shop detail, at a scale of 3/4 inch to 1 foot, of a single-web plate girder 30 feet long clear span, resting on a brick wall at each end and carrying a load of 60 tons distributed as s...
- Steel Construction Problems #5. Part 2
- Gussets should always be cut as closely as possible, both for neatness in appearance and for saving in weight. In detailing, always show gussets, where possible, of such shape that they can be cut fr...
- Steel Construction Problems #5. Part 3
- In a similar manner, taking moments about the intersection of the top chord and the diagonal, leaves only the moment of the bottom chord stress to be determined, which must equal the sum of the moment...
- Steel Construction Problems #5. Part 4
- Choosing the Sections. The fiber stresses used here are tension, 15,000 lbs.; compression, 12,000 lbs., reduced by Gordon's formula. Both top and bottom chords are subjected to bending stresses due ...
- Steel Construction Problems #6
- Determine all the stresses and suitable sizes to use for a truss loaded as shown in Fig. 283, and resting on a brick wall at each end. The load consists of floor joists resting directly on the top cho...
- Structural Drafting Part I. Drafting Room Equipment And Practice
- Introduction. Structural drafting may be defined as the art of making drawings of certain objects and placing thereon dimensions and other notes which when taken together will convey the necessary inf...
- Structural Drafting Part I. Drafting Room Equipment And Practice. Part 2
- Great care should be taken in making the changes that no dimensions or other notations written upon the drawing by the checker are rubbed off. The checker then examines the drawing carefully to see th...
- Structural Drafting Part I. Drafting Room Equipment And Practice. Part 3
- A small paper clamp should be attached to the scale a short distance from the center opposite the end where the scale which the draftsman is using is situated. This will prevent the scale from being t...
- Structural Drafting Part I. Drafting Room Equipment And Practice. Part 4
- In some cases tracing paper is used in making small unimportant drawings. This paper should be of good quality in order that it may stand erasing, since mistakes are liable to occur and these must nec...
- Ordering Of Material
- Since the ordering of material is of great importance it will be discussed here somewhat at length. Although this is usually done by men of considerable experience, yet it is advisable that the drafts...
- Ordering Of Material. Continued
- Multiple Lengths. In cases where there are several pieces of the same size and length, they may, for convenience in handling, be ordered in one piece at the mills and cut into lengths after they reach...
- Detailing - General Instructions
- Lettering. In order that the drawing may give the necessary information and that no mistakes should occur in the reading of the drawing by the shopmen or others, it is necessary that the letters and d...
- Detailing - General Instructions. Part 2
- Fig. 34. Guide Sheet for Obtaining Correct Slant in Letters. The only manner in which a person can become proficient in lettering is through practice. A piece of paper ruled up and having the slan...
- Detailing - General Instructions. Part 3
- Fig. 39. Correct Method of Indicating Shop Rivets. Notation Used. As stated before, the feet and inches should always be given when a multiple space is given. For example they should be written th...
- Detailing - General Instructions. Part 4
- Care should be taken in case of castings to add 1/8 inch more to those values given. Rivets may have two full heads or may have one or both heads countersunk or flattened or any combination. Such con...
- Detailing - General Instructions. Part 5
- St=12,500X0.6013 = 7,510 pounds which is less than the amount required to strain its head up to the maximum allowable. Fig. 45. Drawing of Standard Rivet. Table X. Rivet Spacing Multiplication Ta...
- Detailing - General Instructions. Part 6
- Table XIII. Loop Bars. Allowance For One Loop. American Bridge Company Standards (All dimensions in inches) American Bridge Company practice requires the smallest pin to be not less than three-fo...
- Detailing - General Instructions. Part 7
- As in the case of Fig. 49c and 49d the clearances at one end will be 1/4 inch and at the other end may be more, and should be, in order that the distances l1 and l2 shall be the same. (The distance fr...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods
- Detailing of Angles. The line upon which the rivets are spaced is the gauge line. The standard gauges given in Table VII should not be departed from unless instructions are given otherwise or unless i...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 2
- If the stress in a member is great, the number of rivets will necessarily be large. In such cases the thickness of the plate may be made thicker than 3/8 inch in railroad, or 5/16 inch in highway or b...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 3
- Fig. 56. Methods of Determining Number of Rivets in Connection Plate from the Diagonal. Other problems may be solved in a similar manner. The rivet spacing in the sides and tops is so arranged as ...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 4
- Fig. 63. Method of Bringing Beams to the Same Level on Main Girders. The centers of all groups of field holes above the bottom of the beam should be given. Tie rods are put in in case no beams ar...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 5
- Plate III. Work-Shop Drawing of a Roof Truss. Plate IV Work-Shop Drawing Showing Detail of Top and Bottom Lateral Bracing of a Roof Truss. 21'-10 1/2+2 (1 1/2)-l'-1 1/2=21'-0 At the po...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 6
- Plate V. Stress Sheet of a Single-Track Deck-Girder Span. Plate VI. Stress Sheet for Plate-Girder Span. (9) The rivet spacing curve should be constructed if it is not given on the stress sheet...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 7
- Web Splices. Web splices may be of two forms, viz, that as indicated on Plate VIII which takes shear only, and the moment web splice. The proper manner to detail a moment web splice is as shown in Fig...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 8
- Since the single gauge is used in the top flange and, according to the stress sheet, two rivet holes are taken out of each angle, it is possible to space the rivets in the outstanding leg and cover pl...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 9
- After all the spacing in the cover plates has been determined, it may be necessary to change it slightly in order to allow for better spacing in the connection plates, but it is common practice to mak...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 10
- Fig. 7S. Detailing of Angles in Lateral Systems. Each different angle, as in the case of stiffeners, should have a different mark. In such cases the mark is all that is necessary to designate anot...
- Structural Drafting. Part II. Detailing Methods. Part 11
- WEST ELEVATION OF MUNICIPAL OFFICE BUILDING FOR THE CITY OF NEW YORK FROM ARCHITECT'S DRAWING. McKim, Mead and White, Architects, New York Ground Floor Plan Shown on Page 42S GROUND FLOOR PLAN O...
- Practical Steel Construction Test Questions
- In the foregoing sections of this Cyclopedia, numerous illustrative examples are worked out in detail in order to show the application of* the various methods and principles. Accompanying these are ex...
- Review Questions On The Subject Of Steel Construction. Part I. Continued
- 15. Make out a bill of material for the head of the column shown by Fig. 127; scene measurements, assuming drawing to be made to a scale of one inch equal to one foot. 16. For what combinations of lo...
- Review Questions On The Subject Of Structural Drafting Part I
- 1. Define engineer of plant, chief draftsman, squad boss, and tracers, and give their duties. 2. How is the work handled in a drafting room? 3. Describe the laying out of a plate. 4. Give briefly...
- Foreword Vol6
- HE rapid evolution of constructive methods in recent years, as illustrated in the use of steel and concrete, and the increased size and complexity of buildings, has created the necessity for an aut...
- Mechanical Drawing. Part I
- The subject of mechanical drawing is of great interest and importance to all mechanics and engineers. Drawing is a method of showing graphically the minute details of machinery; it is the language by ...
- Mechanical Drawing. Part I. Part 2
- In using a very hard lead pencil a light pressure should be used as otherwise the chisel edge will make a deep impression in the paper which cannot be erased. Erasers. What little erasing is necessary...
- Mechanical Drawing. Part I. Part 3
- Fig. 11. Testing 45 Angle (45 Triangle). Triangles are used in drawing lines at right angles to the T-square, Fig. 12, and at an angle with the horizontal, Fig. 13. If it is desired to draw...
- Mechanical Drawing. Part I. Part 4
- Fig. 20. Compasses Set for Drawing Circles. Fig. 21. Details of Compass Joint. Fig. 22. Pentagonal Shank and Socket. Fig. 23. Circular Shank and Socket. In removing the pencil or pen a...
- Mechanical Drawing. Part I. Part 5
- Scales. The scales used for obtaining measurements on drawings are made in several forms, the most convenient being the flat, with beveled edges, and the triangular. The scale is usually graduated for...
- Lettering
- No mechanical drawing is finished unless all headings, titles, and dimensions are lettered in plain, neat type. Many drawings are accurate, well-planned, and finely executed but do not present a good ...
- Preliminary Line Problems
- To lay out the paper for the plates of this work, place a sheet, A B G F, Fig. 38, on the drawing board 2 or 3 inches from the left-hand edge, called the working edge. If placed near the left-hand edg...
- Preliminary Line Problems. Part 2
- Ink dries very quickly and should not be left in the pen on account of its corrosive effects. The celluloid triangles should be washed frequently in water and all ink spots removed. In using the comp...
- Preliminary Line Problems. Part 3
- Draw in a similar manner the guide lines of the date, name, and address in the lower margin, the date of completing the drawing placed under Fig. 3, and the name and address at the right, under Fig. 4...
- Preliminary Line Problems. Part 4
- FIRST-STORY PLAN OF TWO-STORY FLAT BUILDING FOR MR. J. WM. THORSON, CHICAGO, ILL. W. Carbys Zimmerman, Architect, Chicago, 111. Second-Story Plan Shown on Opposite Page. For Basement Plan, See Pa...
- Mechanical Drawing Part II. Geometrical Definitions
- A point is used for marking position; it has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. Lines A line has length only; it is produced by the motion of a point. A straight line or right line is one that...
- Solids
- A solid has three dimensions - length, breadth, and thickness. The most common forms of solids are polyedrons, cylinders, cones, and spheres. Polyedrons A polyedron is a solid bounded by planes. The...
- Cylinders
- A cylinder is a solid having as bases two equal parallel curved surfaces and as its lateral face the continuous surface generated by line connecting the bases and moving along their circum- The bases...
- Cones
- A cone is a solid bounded by a conical surface and a plane which cuts the conical surface. It may be considered as a pyramid with an infinite number of sides, Fig. SO. The conical surface is called t...
- Spheres
- A sphere is a solid bounded by a curved surface, every point of which is equally distant from a point within called the center. The diameter is a straight line drawn through the center and having its...
- Conic Sections
- If a plane intersects a cone the geometrical figures thus formed are called conic sections. A plane perpendicular to the base and passing through the vertex of a right circular cone forms an isosceles...
- Odontoidal Curves
- Gears have their teeth cut by a machine so as to conform to certain shapes which will bring about smoothness of running when the gears are in mesh. The curves generally employed in shaping the gear te...
- Geometrical Problems
- The problems given in Plates IV to VIII inclusive have been chosen because of their particular bearing on the work of the mechanical draftsman. They should be solved with great care, as the principles...
- Problems 5 and 6. To Draw A Perpendicular To A Line Front A Point In The Line
- First Method. When The Point Is Near The Middle Of The Line Draw the line A C about 3 1/2 inches long and assume the point P near the middle of the line. With P as a center and any convenient radius ...
- Problems 8 and 9. To bisect a given angle
- First Method. When The Sides Intersect Draw the lines 0 C and 0 A - about 3 inches long - forming any angle of 45 to 60 degrees. With 0 as a center and any convenient radius - about 2 inches - draw a...
- Problems 8 and 9. To bisect a given angle. Part 2
- Proof. Since the triangle 0 C D is an equilateral triangle by construction, the angle C 0 D is one-third of two right. angles and one-sixth of four right angles. Hence arc C D is one-sixth of the circ...
- Problems 8 and 9. To bisect a given angle. Part 3
- PLATE VIII MARLBORO FLAT BUILDING, MILWAUKEE, WIS. Fernekes & Cramer, Architects, Milwaukee, Wis. Walls of Continental Paving Brick; Entrances and all Stonework of Bedford Stone; Cornice of G...
- Mechanical Drawing Part III. Projections. Orthographic Projection
- Principles. Orthographic projection is the art of representing objects by casting their outlines upon two planes at right angles to each other, so that from the outlines alone the forms and positions ...
- True Length Of Lines
- In Fig. 102 is given the plan and elevation of a square pyramid standing on the horizontal plane. The height of the pyramid is the distance A B. The slanting edges of the pyramid, AC, AD, etc., must b...
- Profile Plane
- A third plane perpendicular to both coordinate planes, and hence to the ground line, is called a profile plane. This plane is vertical in position, and may be used as a plane of projection. A projecti...
- Representation Of Objects
- In Fig. 108 there is represented a rectangular prism or block, whose length is twice the width. The elevation shows its height. As the prism is placed at an angle, three of the vertical edges will be ...
- Rotation Of Objects
- Frustum of a Square Pyramid. In Fig. 112 is shown the plan and elevation of the frustum of a square pyramid, placed with its base on the horizontal plane. If the frustum is turned through 30, as ...
- Intersections
- If one surface meets another at some angle, an intersection is produced. Either surface may be plane, or curved. If both are plane, the intersection is a straight line; if one is curved, the intersect...
- Intersections. Continued
- Planes with Cones or Cylinders. Sections cut by a plane from a cone have already been defined as conic sections. These sections may be any of the following: two straight lines, circle, ellipse, parabo...
- Development Of Surfaces
- The development of a surface is the true size and shape of the surface extended or spread out on a plane. If the surface to be developed is of such a character that it may be flattened out without tea...
- Development Of Surfaces. Part 2
- Fig. 137. Plan, Elevation, and Development of Three-Piece Elbow and Collar. It should be borne in mind that in developing a cylinder the base must always be at right angles to the elements, and if...
- Development Of Surfaces. Part 3
- Fig. 139. Development of Objects Shown in Fig. 138. Intersection of Triangular Prism and Cylinder. The intersection of a cylinder and prism is found by obtaining the points where elements of the cyli...
- Isometric Projection
- In orthographic projection an object has been represented by two or more projections; another system, called isometrical drawing, often used to show in one view the three dimensions of an object, leng...
- Isometric Projection. Continued
- Fig. 150 shows a framework of three pieces, two at right angles and a slanting brace. The horizontal piece is mortised into the upright,as indicated by the dotted lines. In Fig. 151 the isometric out...
- Oblique Projections
- In oblique projection, as in isometric, the end sought for is -a more or less complete representation, in one view, of any object. Oblique projection differs from isometric in that one face of the obj...
- Line Shading
- In finely finished drawings it is frequently desirable to make the various parts more readily seen by showing the graduations of light and shade on the curved surfaces. This is especially true of such...
- Problems In Projection. Plate IX
- The plates of this Instruction Paper should be laid out the same size as the plates in Parts I and II. The center lines and border lines should also be drawn as described. Draw two ground lines acros...
- Plate XII. Developments
- On this plate draw the developments of a truncated octagonal prism, and of a truncated pyramid having a square base. The arrangement on the plate is left to the student; but it is suggested that the t...
- Plate XIII. Isometric And Oblique Projection
- Draw the oblique projection of a portable closet. The angle to be used is 45. Make the height 3 1/2 inches, the depth 1 1/2 inches, and the width 3 inches. See Fig. 196. The width of the closet i...
- Plate XIV. Free-Hand Lettering
- On account of the importance of free-hand lettering, the student should practice it at every opportunity. For additional practice, and to show the improvement made since completing Part I, lay out Pla...
- Plate XV. Lettering
- First lay out Plate XV in the same manner as previous plates. After drawing the vertical center line, draw light pencil lines as guide lines for the letters. The height of each line of letters is show...
- Architectural Lettering
- Architectural lettering may be divided into two general classes. The first is for titling and naming drawings, as well as for such note and explanations as it is usual or necessary to put upon them; t...
- Letter Forms
- It may be said that practically all the lettering now used in architectural offices in this country is derived, however remotely it may seem in some cases, from the old Roman capitals as developed and...
- Letter Forms. Continued
- Fig. 3. Title from Competitive Drawings for the Taunton Public Library,. Albert Randolph Ross, Architect. In drawing a letter that is to be incised in stone it is customary to show in addition to the...
- Letter Composition
- After acquiring a sufficient knowledge of letter forms, the student is ready to begin the study of lettering. While a knowledge of architectural beauty of form is the first essential, it is not the ...
- Letter Spacing
- There is a workable general rule that may be given for obtaining an even color over a panel of black lettering; that is if the individual letters are so spaced as to have an equal area of white betwee...
- Minuscule Or Shall Letters
- In taking up the use of the small or minuscule letter, a word of warning may be required. While typographical work may furnish very valuable models for composition and for the individual shapes of min...
- Architectural Inscription Lettering
- The use of a regular Classic letter for any purpose necessitates the reversion to and the study of actual Classic examples for spacing and composition. In using this letter in a pen-drawn design, cert...
- Classic Roman Letters
- In any letter cut in stone, or cast in metal, it is not the outline of the letter that is seen by the eye of the observer, but the shadow cast by the section used to define the letter. This at once ch...
- Classic Roman Letters. Continued
- ALPHABET OF MODERN CAPITAL LETTERS OF ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CHARACTER. Suitable for cutting at a small size (i. e. 1 1/8 inches high) in stone. LETTERING FROM BRONZE PLATE IN CATHEDRAL CHURCH AT WUR...
- Gothic Lettering
- Gothic lettering is extremely difficult, and has little practical use for the architectural designer or draftsman. It is often appropriate, but it is quite possible to get along without employing this...
- Drawing Examination Plates
- In addition to the following Examination Plates the student is expected to make careful reproductions of the lettering in this Instruction Paper. These plates need not be sent to the School. Plates I...
- Architectural Drawing. Part I
- The Study Of Architectural Drawing Includes Preparatory Work In Use Of Instruments, Mechanical Drawing, The Working Out Of Problems In Descriptive Geometry, Casting Shadows, And Perspective, Freehand ...
- Architectural Drawing. Part I. Continued
- Two triangles are required, one 30 degrees to 60 degrees, and one of 45 degrees. Triangles are made of wood, hard rubber or celluloid. Materials for Wash=Drawings. For tinting, a nest of tinting sauc...
- Line Drawing
- Character of Line. The thickness of the line in drawing should be the same throughout its length, except occasionally in perspective rendering. The line may vary in different parts of the same drawing...
- The Importance Of Axes In Architectural Drawing
- The axis is the key of a design or of any composition. An axis in geometry is a line which separates into two equal parts any symmetrical plane figure, or the pole of a surface of revolution or of a r...
- The Importance Of Axes In Architectural Drawing. Part 2
- In all which has preceded, the drawing has been laid out along the lines of the axes. But besides these are some conventional methods by which the drawing of profiles in section or in elevation can be...
- The Importance Of Axes In Architectural Drawing. Part 3
- Consider, for example, two windows, one in direct elevation and the other projected at an angle. It is evident that the direct elevation permits the study of proportions and it is evident also that th...
- The Importance Of Axes In Architectural Drawing. Part 4
- Take for example a cylindrical body like the shaft of a column. It is easy to distinguish on this cylinder cast shadows and shades. The cast shadows are those which result from the interception by ano...
- Rendering In Wash
- All studies and completed exhibition drawings in the architectural schools are tinted in India ink or water-color. This is done to show the shadows, and to indicate the relative position of the differ...
- Method Of Procedure
- Stretching Paper. All drawings on which washes are to be laid should be stretched, as described in the Mechanical Drawing, Part 1. Fig. 16. Nest of Saucers. Inking the Drawing. The lines should b...
- Method Of Procedure. Part 2
- Studio. RESIDENCE OF MRS. R. D. LAWRENCE, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect, Oak Park, 111. For Other Exterior Views, See Page 218. Building Completed in 1903. RESIDENCE AND STABLE...
- Method Of Procedure. Part 3
- It is a good plan, before starting to render a drawing, to make a small pencil sketch to determine the tone values which the various surfaces should have, so that they will assume their proper relativ...
- A Few Water Color Hints For Draftsmen
- Many draftsmen who are strong in drawing, are very weak in color work. The reason for this is, in most cases, that the colors are not fresh, that the brush is too dry, and that the color values are no...
- Preliminary Studies In Architectural Design
- Methods of Study. Different designers work up their drawings in individual ways. Good results are, as a rule, accomplished by getting ideas on paper, comparing and working up the best, and combining d...
- Method Of Starting A Problem At The Ecole Des Beaux Arts, Paris
- At the School of Fine Arts, in Paris, when a problem is given to the students, they are obliged to work one day by themselves getting out the scheme of the building. Each student then takes a tracing ...
- Exhibition Drawings
- Exhibition or show drawings consist of plans, elevations, sections, and perspectives; the drawings are in line, pencil, pen and ink, or color; and all are carefully drawn and mounted, to show the sche...
- Sketching
- We have considered drawings made on a drawing board with T-square and triangles. There is another way of drawing, that is, by sketching. The sketch is the most rapid means of progressing in the art o...
- Measured Work
- There are two occasions for making measurements of old buildings; one, when it is proposed to make alterations; the other, for the sake of study, making drawings of portions either for immediate study...
- Review Questions On The Subject Of Architectural Drawing. Part I
- Materials required: H H, F, and B B pencils. Erasers: A large soft rubber, and a firm one; also an ink eraser and erasing shield. Set of instruments, including compasses, bow instruments, dividers, ...
- Review Questions On The Subject Of Architectural Drawing. Part I. Continued
- Plate II This plate is to be drawn three times the size of plate B. The section of the mouldings is to be drawn first, then lines drawn at an angle of 45 from the different corners of the mouldi...
- Notes On Theory Of Design
- Composition. It is impossible to formulate laws of composition which, even if faithfully observed, will absolutely insure satisfactory results. That is to say, any work of art - such as a picture, a s...
- Design Of The Dwelling
- The plan of the modern residence began to be worked out in the 18th century. There is a treatise on architecture published at that time by Blondel, who says that a complete reformation had been made i...
- Various Stages In Building A House
- The point where the majority of people, who know nothing about architecture, come in contact with the architect, is when they make up their minds to build houses of their own. To develop this point m...
- Various Stages In Building A House. Continued
- *Note: - There is a great difference between quarter-inch scale (i.e. 1/4 inch =1 foot) and quarter scale, or one-quarter of full size (i.e., 3 inches = 1 foot). Besides the contract drawings an...
- Buildings For Offices
- The plan must be laid out so as to obtain the largest possible amount of space available; it must be made with reference to the constructive requirements. Arrange the offices so as to take advantage ...
- Practical Example: A Colonial House
- Conditions. A business man, having purchased a lot sufficiently large to give him space on all sides, wishes to build a colonial house containing nine rooms. On the first floor, a hall is to be in th...
- Practical Example: A Colonial House. Part 2
- Fig. 28 Basement Plan. Fig. 28 shows the basement plan of the residence. Dimensions are all given to the outside of the underpinning rubble wall, which in this case is 2 inches outside the sill li...
- Practical Example: A Colonial House. Part 3
- Attic and Roof Plan. The attic, as shown in Fig. 31, is left unfinished, with the exception of the hall at the top of the back stairs. The location of the tank is shown near a chimney, and a small clo...
- Practical Example: A Colonial House. Part 4
- Attic Framing Plan. On this drawing (Fig. 37), the roof plate is shown, and also the location of the hard pine ledger-board. The partition caps of the story below, on which the joists rest, are shown....
- Practical Example: A Colonial House. Part 5
- Fig. 44. Fig. 45. Detail of General Window Frames. Fig. 45 shows the method of laying out a full-size detail of a window box. Such a drawing is one of the first things usually given to a draftsma...
- Practical Example: A Colonial House. Part 6
- Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49 The sash are usually made one and three-quarters inches thick, for house construction; sometimes, in less expensive work, they are made one and one-half inches th...
- Estimating. Part I
- Introductory. The ability to estimate may be considered as the dividing line between the journeyman and the master builder, for, no matter how skilful a mechanic may become, he can never hang out his...
- Estimating. Part I. Continued
- Approximate Estimates. Approximate estimates are obtained with varying degrees of accuracy by several methods, the most convenient and reliable of which is the system of cubing; i.e., the cubical cont...
- Table Of Multiples
- Circumference of a circle = diameter X 3.1416 Area of a circle = square of the radius X 3.1416 Area of a circle = square of the diameter X 0.7854 ...
- Measure Of Lines And Surface
- 1. To find the area of a parallelogram: Rule - Multiply the length by the breadth or perpendicular height. See Fig. 1 Fig. 1. 2. To find the area of a triangle: Rule - Multiply the base by half t...
- Areas Of Circles
- Size Area 1/8 0.0123 1/4 0.0491 3/8 0.1104 1/2 0.1963 5/8 0.3067 3/4 0.4417 7/8 0.6013 ...
- Areas Of Solids
- 16. To find the lateral surface of a prism: Rule - Multiply the perimeter of the base by the altitude. 17. To find the lateral surface of a regular pyramid: Rule - Multiply the perimeter of the base ...
- Solid Contents
- 19. To find the solid contents of a pyramid: Rule - Find the area of the base and multiply this by -J- height. 20. To find the solid contents of a cylinder: Rule - Multiply the area of the base by th...
- Scale Of Wages
- The item of cost of labor, on construction of any kind, is at best a variable quantity, dependent to a large degree upon competition, demand, and labor organization. The cost of labor is steadily on ...
- Cost of Excavation
- Many considerations, seen and unforeseen, enter into the cost of excavations, of which the unforeseen conditions can, at best, be only judged of, making it more important that known circumstances shou...
- Stone Wall Work
- Stone walls are figured either by the perch or the cubic yard. In taking off a stone foundation, it is customary to take the corners twice, that is, each different face of the wall is measured from o...
- Brickwork
- Brickwork is usually estimated by the thousand bricks, but is sometimes priced by the cubic foot at 40 cubic feet to a thousand. A mason in one day will lay from 800 to 1,000 common bricks, or 300 to ...
- Miscellaneous Data Chimneys
- Chimneys may be quickly estimated by the lineal foot of height, as follows: 1 flue 8 in. X 8 in. per Toot $0.90 with flue lining $1.10 1 ...
- Flue Lining
- Net price per foot, outside dimensions. 41/2 in. X 81/2 inches $.10 4 1/2 in X 13 .16 8 1/2 in. X 8 1/2 .16 8 1/2 in...
- Cellar Columns
- For cellar support, in place of brick piers, pipe columns consisting of a steam pipe filled with cement, under a patent, are coming into general use in many localities. These columns cost less, and ...
- Earthen Drain Pipe
- For sewer and cesspool connections and general drainage, earthen vitrified drain pipes are used. These are laid in cement and, if well below frost or danger of breaking, make a more durable pipe than ...
- Carpentry
- The Carpenter-Work of a building includes, in general, the skeleton or frame, if a wooden building, the floor timbers, studs of partitions and walls, rafters, the covering in of the frame, with its ex...
- Miscellaneous Prices Of Lumber
- LUMBER Dimension spruce lumber up to 9 inches of depth will cost at present per M., board measure. $26.00 10-inch stock, per M. 30.00 For long lengths, ad...
- Stair-building
- The trade of stair-building, while a part of the general work of joinery, is usually taken up as a separate trade and is done by men who do nothing else. For this reason it is better, if possible, to ...
- Stairs. Continued
- Size 2d 3d 3 1/2 d 4d 5d 6d 7d 8d 9d 10d Length 1 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 1/2 1 3/4 2 2 1/4 2 1/2 2 3/...
- Wire Nails Adopted Dec. 1, 1896
- Common, Fence, and Flooring Base 20d to 60d $2.45* * (Variable. July, 1907, $2.55.) Extras 10d to 16d $0.05 8d and 9d .10 6d ...
- Miscellaneous Data
- Broken stone filling cu. yd. $ 2.50 Cesspool 6 ft. diam. and 8 ft. deep, 8 in. brick 60.00 Blind drains per lineal ft. .12 Earthen drain...
- Plastering Measurements
- Plastering is measured by the square yard and is usually done in 2-coat or 3-coat work. In taking off plastering it is customary to deduct only one-half of the area of openings to allow for the extra ...
- Painting Estimations
- Painting is estimated by the yard, doors and windows being taken solid to make up for the extra labor of cutting in the sashes and mouldings. Railings, fences, grilles, and similar surfaces are taken...
- Covering Or Spreading Power Of Typical Paints On Wood
- First Coat Second Coat Red lead 112 252 White lead 221 324 *The figures represent square feet covered by 100 lbs. of paint of the usual con ...
- Heating of a Building
- The heating of a building is generally made the subject of a special contract. The three usual methods for house heating are, the Hot Air Furnace, the Hot Water Boiler, or the Steam Boiler. Sometimes...
- Galvanized Elbows
- Size 4 4 1/2 5 5 1/2 6 7 8 Pound ........ 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 1 3/4 2 1/4 2 3/4 3 1/4 Cost.. .18 ...
- Hot Water And Steam Heating
- In estimating for heating with hot water, all pipes and fittings must be taken off and listed, all standard radiators priced by the square foot of radiation, and special radiators listed separately, a...
- Plumbing Costs
- So wide a range is possible in the selection and price of plumbing fixtures that no very useful data can be given for a complete installation. For instance, in one house the price of a single bathroo...
- Capacity Of Cisterns In Gallons, For Each Foot In Depth
- Diameter in Feet Gallons 2. 23.5 2.5 36.7 3. 52.9 3.5 71.96 4. 94.02 4.5 119. 5. 146.8 ...
- Electric Work
- The original contract for a house usually provides for the wiring for electric lighting and bells, but fixtures are generally left to be provided for by a later agreement, as there is such a great lat...
- Estimating. Part II
- The taking-off of quantities and making-up of an actual estimate, is the end toward which our efforts are now directed. This is done, as has been said, in a number of ways, no two persons arriving at ...
- Estimate Of Residence At Ridgedale, Mo For George A. Jones, Esq
- Staking-out and setting batter-boards.. $15.00 Water supply during construction... 10.00 $25.00 Excavation Note. - Excavation is priced by the cubic yard;...
- Plastering Walls With Cement
- 192ft.0in. X 6ft. 7in. = l,264sq.ft. = 140sq.yds.,at$.40 $ 56.00 CESSPOOLS Leaching Cesspool - 23 ft. 6 in. X 8 ft. 0 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. = 282 cu. ft. ÷ 25= 11 1/3 perches. ...
- Electric Lighting Fixtures
- Note. - While the electric lighting fixtures are not generally made a part of the building contract, it may be worth while to consider them in relation to the cost of the house; although,as has been s...
- Schedules. Analysis Of Carpenter Work
- Following is a section devoted to the analysis of the different portions of carpenter work in the foregoing estimate. These show how the prices are obtained, and will be very useful for comparison, as...
- Review Questions. Practical Test Questions
- In the foregoing sections of this Cyclopedia numerous illustrative examples are worked out in detail in order to show the application of the various methods and principles. Accompanying these are exam...
- Review Questions On The Subject Of Architectural Drawing. Part II
- 1. What is the meaning of composition in architectural design? What are some of the first principles of good composition? 2. Why should a draftsman study to cultivate his artistic taste? 3. What two...
- Review Questions On The Subject Of Estimating. Part I
- 1. (a) What will a walk of Milestone flagging 4 ft. wide and 19 ft. long cost, complete? (b) Give cost of limestone coping for an 18-inch wall on one side of the path. 2. (a) About how many square ya...
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