The Blind, persons who have not the sense od sight. In common use the term also includes persons who possess some power of vision, but not sufficient to enable them to distinguish the forms of objects. The causes of blindness are both ante-natal and post-natal. It is contended by some that psychological influences may induce blindness in the offspring, as when the mother has received a powerful nervous impression from witnessing some horrible spectacle, or an extremely disgusting case of sore eyes or malformation, and cases have been adduced which are supposed to establish the theory; but the probability is that there is not sufficient proof to warrant its reception. The ante-natal causes which are acknowledged to produce blindness are the intermarriage of near relatives, scrofula, and syphilis; but congenital cases of blindness are not found to be so frequent as those of deafness. In intermarriage, and where the parents are imperfectly developed, there is liability to want of development of the nerves of special sense; but in most cases ante-natal as well as post-natal blindness is caused by imperfection or disease of the optical apparatus which is accessory to the nerves of special sense; or in other words, the defect generally exists in some part of the globe of the eye.

Hereditary blindness is not frequent. Of 700 blind persons in the institutions at Philadelphia whose parentage is known, according to Mr. Chapin, the principal of the Pennsylvania institution for the blind, only 12 had either parent blind. An investigation which he made at the hospice deg Quinze Vingts, Paris, revealed the remarkable fact that of the several hundred children born there of parents one or both of whom were blind, there was not one blind at birth. After birth the principal causes of blindness are: 1, special diseases, such as purulent ophthalmia, inflammation of the cornea and of the iris, cataract or opacity of the crystalline lens, and amaurosis or paralysis of the optic nerve; 2, general diseases, whose sequelae attack different parts of the eye, as smallpox, scarlatina, measles, typhus fever and other inflammatory fevers, and scrofula; 3, injuries from blows or wounds, and from malpractice, the latter being one of the most fruitful causes. The following table exhibits the causes of the malady in nearly all the cases received in the Liverpool asylum for the blind from its foundation in 1791 to January, 1859:

An examination of 500 cases from the Perkins institution for the blind at Boston gives the following percentage of causes: congenital, 37.75; disease after birth, 47.09; accidents, 15.16. The extraordinary exemption from blindness in the United States as compared with Great Britain and Ireland may be in a great measure attributed to the far less prevalence of smallpox in this country. Dr. Cromp-ton of Manchester estimated that in Great Britain and Ireland more than 4,000 were blind from smallpox, out of a blind population of 28,450 in 1841. In the Glasgow asylum nearly one fifth were blind from smallpox. In the Pennsylvania institution, of 476 received up to 1863, only 21, or 1/22 of the whole, lost their sight by that disease. In the Ohio institution, of 118 up to a certain date, only one was blind from this cause. Proceeding from temperate latitudes toward the equator, the proportion of blind to the entire population increases, but this is more noticeable in the eastern than in the western hemisphere.

The glittering sand which reflects the light and heat of the sun, and also the fine particles of dust that are blown into the eyes, are causes which are very fruitful in producing ophthalmia in northern Africa. Again, as we approach the polar regions, where snow and icebergs reflect the sun's rays, the proportion of the blind increases. The following table, taken frorn the work of a blind author, W. Hanks Levy ("Blindness and the Blind," London, 1872), of blind persons in England and Wales, shows the proportion as to sex, and the tendency of increase of years to produce loss of sight:

This table exhibits a great preponderance in the proportion of the female over the male blind who are more than 60 years of age, and a preponderance of the males below that age. A comparison of the proportion of male to female blind in the United States does not show precisely the same results, as will be seen from the following table prepared from the census of 1870:

It is thus seen that about half of the blind in the United States are over 48 years of age. In all countries the number of males among the blind exceeds that of females, the excess being mostly caused by accidents, to which the former are more exposed. It may be remarked that caution is required in forming conclusions from these tables. They have their value, but other facts must be weighed with them. One practical conclusion is gathered from the last table by Mr. Chapin of Philadelphia, which is that "if the adult blind were provided with instruction and employment in handicrafts in separate institutions, it would be practicable to receive and educate all the younger blind in the country over 10 years of age." - Observation would indicate that the blind as a class have less vitality than those who have their sight, and statistics confirm this opinion. This want of vitality is doubtless one cause of blindness; but again, much of their want of vitality is in consequence of their being blind, which causes them to lead more sedentary lives than they otherwise would.

As Dr. Howe remarks, "There are many who are not born blind, who are born to become blind." From statistics embraced in a report of the Boston institution, gathered from seven American state institutions, the director makes the following note: "Of the number of persons admitted to the above-mentioned institutions between the ages of 10 and 14, the number that was surviving in 1859 was 8.6 per cent, less, according to the Massachusetts life table, than the number that should then be surviving. Of the number admitted during the three years of 1838-'40, from which the average time elapsing to the middle of 1859 was 20 years, the number that survived in 1859 was 12.3 per cent, less than the number that should have survived." - The number of blind in the world cannot be stated with any great degree of exactness. In the United States and in most of the countries of Europe, however, the number is known from census returns. In other countries the number has been estimated by various travellers and writers, and from a comparison of data it is believed that a pretty near approximation has been reached.

The table on the next page, compiled from the United States census of 1870, contains a considerably larger number than was shown by that of 1860, giving reason to believe that the latter census was imperfect. The following is a table of the blind in Europe, the number in Russia, Austria, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, and Turkey in Europe being estimated; but the attention given to the subject in most of these countries makes it probable that the estimates are pretty nearly correct:

The above computation gives as the average proportion of the blind to the whole of the population of Europe, 1 in 1,094. It has been estimated that in China alone, with a population of about 400,000,000, there are at least 1,000,-000 blind persons, and that there are in India more than 350,000. These estimates are made from the statements of travellers in regard to the proportion of the blind seen by them. Mr. Levy, after much thought and inquiry, thinks the following numbers for Asia not too great, and he is probably correct:

Table Of The Blind Of All Classes In The United States And Territories

This computation makes the proportion of the blind to the whole population in Asia 1 in 500. It is computed that Africa, with a population of 75,000,000, has about 1 blind to every 300 of the whole number, or a total number of 250,000 blind. The number of blind in other countries is estimated as follows:

It appears, therefore, that the total number of persons now living who are without sight is over two and a quarter millions. From the accounts of travellers it would seem that in Japan the blind receive more respect than in other Asiatic countries. Sir Rutherford Alcock, in his " Capital of the Tycoon," says: "There are two sects of blind, founded by two great celebrities in Japanese history - one by the third son of a mikado who wept himself blind for the death of a mistress, and the other by a defeated general in the civil wars, who tore his eyes out that he might not be provoked to take the life of a generous victor, Youtomo, the founder of a dynasty. Into these two sects, half secular, half religious, persons of all ranks enter. They are generally but not exclusively musicians, and earn their subsistence by playing on musical instruments." - Care and Education of the Blind. Although in all ages individuals among the blind have obtained some education, the ancients made no provision for the support or instruction of these unfortunates, who depended for subsistence upon their friends, or lived by begging; and long after the commencement of the Christian era they received but little of the sympathy which the doctrines of Christianity inculcate.

The first known public asylum for the blind was founded at Paris in 1260 by Louis IX., or Saint Louis, and was called the hospice des Quinze Vingts. It was established for the benefit of soldiers who were suffering from ophthalmia contracted in the campaigns in Egypt, and was intended, as its name implies, for 15 score or 300 blind persons, although for many years the number has been much larger. Its annual income is about $80,000. The allowance to each blind man is $89 per annum; if he is married, it is increased to $110; and if he has children, he receives an additional $10 for each child. It has also about 600 pensioners who do not reside at the hospital, but receive, according to their age and circumstances, a yearly sum of $20, $30, or $40, to aid in their support. Some of those entitled to a residence in the hospital prefer to remain with their families in other parts of the city, and to them a pension of $50 per annum is paid. No instruction is given to the inmates of the Quinze Vingts, but some of them execute pieces of work which are remarkable for taste and ingenuity. A similar but less extensive institution was established at Chartres in the latter part of the 13th century, and endowed by King John in 1350 to enable it to accommodate 120 blind persons.

From a variety of causes the number of inmates dwindled till in 1837, according to Dufau, there were but 10. It is now closed. - During the 16th century benevolent men who had witnessed with sympathy the sad fate of the blind devised processes for their instruction, but with no great success. In 1670 Padre Lana Terzi, a Jesuit of Brescia, who had already published an essay on the instruction of deaf mutes, produced a treatise on the instruction of the blind. Nearly a century later the abbe Deschamps and Diderot proposed plans for their instruction in reading and writing; but it was not till 1784, when Valentin Hauy commenced his labors, that any institution specially intended for the education of the blind was successfully attempted. Attracted at first to humanitarian labors by the brilliant example of the abbe de l'Epee in behalf of the deaf and dumb, he enthusiastically devoted himself to the work of instructing the blind. About this time he became acquainted with the celebrated Theresa von Paradis, the blind pianist, and received great encouragement from the interest she took in his enterprise. His first pupil was a young blind beggar named Leseur, who afterward became instrumental in promoting the education of the blind, as Mas-sieu had been in that of deaf mutes.

He taught him to distinguish raised letters, arithmetical figures, and outline maps, and in a few weeks exhibited him before the members of the societe philanthropique, who were enthusiastic in their admiration. A small house, No. 18 Notre Dame des Victoires, was secured, with funds to support 12 pupils. During the year the number increased to 24, and, in consequence of his unceasing labors, improved so rapidly that he exhibited them before Louis XVI. and the court. Hauy be-came a lion, and the school increased in num-bers and popularity. Many of its pupils became proficients in music and mathematics. In 1791 the school was taken under the patronage of the state, but the sums decreed for its support were paid only in assignats, which soon became I worthless. Hauy and his blind pupils worked at the printing press procured in their more fortunate days, and eked out an existence by the severest toil. After the establishment of the empire the school was transferred to the Quinze Vingts, where its members became demoralized from associating with the inmates of that institution, Hauy resigned, but received a pension of 2,000 francs. In 1806 he visited St. Petersburg at the invitation of the emperor Alexander I., and founded the institution for the blind in that city.

He was also instrumental in founding the institution for the blind at Berlin about the same time. In 1814 the French government assigned the school of Hauy separate quarters in the rue St. Victor, and gave it ampler funds and the title of "Royal Institution for the Blind." Dr. Guille was appointed director, a man of energy and tact, but excessively vain and jealous of the fame of Hauy. After some difficulty he resigned and was succeeded by M. Dufau, who had been for 25 years a teacher in the institution. The next institution of the kind in point of time was founded at Liverpool in 1791, and in 1793 asylums for the blind were established at Edinburgh and Bristol. A list of the various institutions for the blind in Great Britain, Ireland, and Scotland is given in the following table, compiled from the "Guide to the Institutions and Charities for the Blind in the United Kingdom," by Mansfield Turner and William Harris (London, 1871):

Table Of Institutions For The Blind In Great Britain And Ireland

In London 23 institutions for the benefit of the blind have been established by donations and bequests. Of these the following are the principal: West's charity for the blind, to grant pensions of £5 to blind persons over 50 years of age, was founded in 1718. It assists 331 persons, the annuities amounting to £1,655. Hetherington's charity for the aged blind empowers the governors of Christ's hospital to pay annuities of £10 to blind persons "who have seen better days," and who are over 60 years of age. The income from the endowment is £7,522, and from legacies and donations in 1870 there was £2,100, making a sum of £9,622, which, after deducting certain payments to Christ's hospital, is distributed among 695 blind people. The painters' and stainers' company's charities for the blind give pensions of £10 each to blind persons over 60 years of age, granted under the wills of five persons (four of them women) dated from 1780 to 1808. The sum invested is £65,375. Came's charity distributed pensions of £5 each to 110 blind persons in 1870. The Christian blind relief society distributes about £1,000 annually among 200 blind from donations and legacies.

The blind men's friend, or Day's-charity, founded by the late Mr. Charles Day, grants pensions of £12, £16, and £20 to deserving blind persons; the number so benefited in 1870 was 237. The indigent blind visiting society, founded in 1834, distributes £1,530 in instructing and otherwise aiding the blind. The Jews' society distributes £1,000 annually, paying 8s. per week each to indigent blind Jews. - Reading is taught in various kinds of type, those of Alston (Roman), Lucas (stenographic), and Moon predominating in Great Britain. The institutions in England are all connected with the English church, with the exception of the Roman Catholic school at Liverpool, but there is no exclusion on account of creed. Generally persons are only admitted from certain localities, specified in the title of the institution. The schools are mostly supported by donations, annual subscriptions, and legacies; and in general the friends or parishes of the pupils pay about £10 per annum toward their maintenance. The school for the indigent blind, St. George's Fields, however, boards, clothes, and educates 160 blind persons without cost to their friends for a period of six years.

The education given in most of the schools in the United Kingdom consists in religious training and instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, and music, and to a great extent the arts of making baskets, brushes, matting, and mattresses, knitting, netting, etc. - The information contained in the following notice of European blind institutions is chiefly derived from Die Fursorge fur die Blinden, by Herr Pablasek, director of the imperial institution for the blind at Vienna, and from the work of Mr. W. Hanks Levy, before cited. France has 13 schools for the blind and one asylum, the hosjrice des Quinze Vingts. Of the schools there is one at Paris, the old school of Hauy, and one at each of the following places: Lyons, Chameliere, Arras, Lille, Fives, Nancy, Montpellier, Rhodez, St. Medard-les-Soissons, St. Hippolite-du-Fort, Vienne, and Marseilles. All these schools, however, afford aid to only a small number compared to those in the United States. Braille's system of reading and writing, and of musical notation, is generally adopted. Instruction in tuning the pianoforte receives a good deal of attention, and it is said that there are in France about 200 blind organists holding situations.

The general education is not very thorough, but the branches pursued are nearly the same as in Great Britain. The industrial employments of basket making, chair bottoming, knitting, and the making of list shoes are generally adopted; and at Nancy the art of turning is carried on to a considerable extent, some of the workmen earning 5 francs a day. The first institution for the blind in Germany was the one commenced at Berlin by Valentin Hauy in 1806, Herr Zeune, the inventor of relief maps, being appointed the director. The example was followed by Dresden in 1809, by Konigsberg in 1818, and by Breslau in 1819. There are also institutions for the blind at each of the following towns: Gmilnd, Munich, Nuremberg, Wtirz-burg, Freiburg, Stuttgart, Bruchsal, Brunswick, Halle, Mannheim, Magdeburg, Posen, Woll-stein, Duren, Soest, Kiel, Hanover, Weimar, Hamburg, Leipsic, Friedberg, Metz, Wittstock, Paderborn, Barby, Wiesbaden, lllzach, Ellwan-gen, and Frankfort-on-the Main. There is also a primary school for children at Berlin, and one at Hubertsburg. In these 33 institutions the reading is principally in the raised type of the Roman alphabet.

The Bible society of Stuttgart has contributed largely to the printing of the embossed German Bible, the greater part of which was printed at Illzach. The cultivation of music is characteristic of the German institutions. The industrial employments are basket making, reseating chairs, making list shoes, brush making, netting, and knitting. Rope making is carried on at Hanover and turning at Munich. In Germany it is usual for the sexes to occupy opposite wings in the same institution, while in France they occupy buildings in different parts of the city. The institution at Breslau was founded and managed for nearly half a century by Herr Knie, who was born blind; and the present director of the institution at Kiel, Herr Simonon, is also blind. Austria has six educational institutions and two asylums and industrial establishments. Of the former there is one in each of the following cities: Vienna, Prague, Linz, Pesth, Brunn, and Lemberg; and of the latter one is at Vienna and one at Prague. The first institution for the blind in Austria was founded in 1804 by the celebrated Dr. Klein, who was its director for about half a century. The embossed Roman type in capitals and small letters is employed in the Austrian institutions, and pricking letters in paper is practised in writing.

Music is cultivated with reference to earning a livelihood, and the industrial employments are similar to those in Germany. Russia has four institutions for the blind: one at St. Petersburg, established by Haiiy in 180G; one at Warsaw, established in 1825; one at Helsingfors, the capital of Finland; and one at Gatchina, a small town about 30 m. from St. Petersburg. The education and industrial employments are similar to those in Germany, music receiving much attention. Sweden has a blind institution at Stockholm, founded in 1806, and one at Gothenburg. The Roman and Moon's types are used in reading, and the employments are principally basket making and knitting. Norway has lately established an institution for the blind at Christiania. In 1811 a school for the blind was established at Copenhagen by the "Society of the Chain," an organization similar to that of the freemasons, and continued under their management till 1857, when it was taken under the care of the state and called the "Royal Institution for the Blind." Herr Moldenhawer was appointed director, and a sum of $2,000 per annum allowed from the royal treasury, the society of the chain endowing it with $8,000. Denmark has also an industrial institution for adults at Copenhagen, established in 1862, on the plan of the London association.

The common alphabet is employed in reading, and they have a contrivance for pencil writing and for embossing letters by hand. In Iceland, which belongs to Denmark, it is said the proportion of blind to the whole population is about 1 in 300. Holland has institutions for the blind at Amsterdam (founded in 1808), Groningen, Rotterdam, Utrecht, the Hague, and one in North Brabant.

The common Roman type and also Braille's and Moon's characters are used in reading. Music and the trades receive about the same attention as in Germany and England. The blind in Holland are entirely supported by voluntary subscription. In Belgium an asylum for the blind is said to have been established at Bruges in 1305 by Robert de Bethune, in gratitude for the courage displayed by the inhabitants of that town in repelling an invasion of Philip the Fair in 1300. A similar asylum was established at Ghent by Peter Vander Ley en about 1370. Both of these have passed away, although the house of worship which was connected with the one at Bruges is said to still exist. The first school for the blind in Belgium was established at Brussels in 1833. There is also another institution for the blind in that city, two at Ghent, and one each at Bruges, Ypres, Mons, Antwerp, and Liege. Braille's system of reading and writing is used in all these schools except the one at Bruges, where a modified system by the director, the abbe Carton, who died in 1863, is employed. The industrial arts are basket making, bottoming chairs, and knitting, and at Bruges the making of bead rosaries. The deaf and dumb share in common with the blind the institutions in Belgium, which are supported by the state.

The first institution for the blind in Switzerland was established at Zurich in 1809. There are also an educational and industrial institute at Bern, a combined school and hospital at Lausanne, an asylum and industrial institution at Schaft'hausen, and one at Fribourg. At these institutions, with the exception of the one at Lausanne, the Roman type is employed, but at the latter place Braille's system is in use. The principal industrial occupation of the blind in Switzerland is wood turning. At Lausanne there is a young man named Edward Meister, a turner, who is deaf, dumb, and blind. Much cannot be said of the institutions for the blind in Italy. Pablasek mentions four as existing at Palermo, Naples, Milan, and Padua; but they do not appear to be in a well organized condition. To the credit of Italy, however, it may be stated that the first book ever published on the condition of the blind was written by an Italian and printed in Italian and French in 1646, called II cieco afflitto e comolato, or L'Aveugle afflige et console, being a letter from S. D. C. to Vincent Armanni. In Spain there are two institutions for the blind, one at Madrid and one at Barcelona. They are not in a prosperous condition, although the number of blind in Spain would seem to be great enough to stimulate the government to take some active measures for their relief.

An institution for the blind was commenced at Rio de Janeiro in 1854, by the efforts of a blind gentleman, Jose Alvares de Alevedo, who was educated at the Paris institution. He did not live to see his plans carried out, having died the same year; but the school now exists, with about 30 pupils. In Asiatic Turkey, Mr. Mott of Beyrout has had parts of the Bible embossed in Arabic in Moon's type. Some of the American and English residents in China are also doing something toward aiding and instructing the blind in some of the seaports. - The following table presents a list of the institutions for the blind in the United States in 1870, prepared by Dr. Howe, director of the Perkins institute for the blind at Boston, for the bureau of education at Washington. The facts exhibited by it show that more attention is bestowed upon the care and education of the blind in this country than in any other. While only five of these institutions were commenced before 1840, it will be observed that more than 6,000 blind persons have been under their care and. instruction, a proportion considerably greater than obtains in Great Britain, and vastly greater than in most of the countries on the continent of Europe.

Institutions for The Blind In The United States

The following early history of the institution for the blind at Boston is condensed from a report of its trustees. Through the exertions of Dr. John D. Fisher an association of gentlemen was formed in that city in the year 1829 for the purpose of founding an institution for the blind, and an act of incorporation was procured under the name of the "New England Asylum for the Blind." Owing to the time occupied in collecting information, it was not opened till 1832, and then with six pupils in a private house in Pleasant street, Boston. Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe took charge of the institution as director, and under his able management it has flourished to this day. Col. Thomas Handasyd Perkins gave it his mansion in Pearl street, which was exchanged in 1889 for the Mount Washington hotel in South Boston, where it has remained ever since. Mr. William Oliver made a still more munificent donation, and other gentlemen contributed liberally. The Massachusetts institution has from the first aimed to give the blind an education which should fit them for any position in life compatible with their infirmity. The education of the celebrated blind, deaf, and dumb girl Laura Bridgman in this institution, who was born the year it was founded, forms an interesting portion of its history.

Some of the institutions in the United States are legally private incorporations; whether receiving aid from the state or not, the latter has no control in the management, which is held by a board of trustees. Such is the case with the New York institution for the blind, in New York city. Others are purely state institutions, and others still are mixed, the property being held by a corporation, and the state appointing a certain number of trustees. The Boston institution is of the latter character. Dr. Howe, in his communication to the commissioners of education, says: "In 1831 Dr. Akerly of New York city, who had been active in introducing instruction for deaf mutes, interested himself and others in procuring like benefits for the blind. Some children were taken from the almshouse and instructed by way of experiment in a small room in Canal street by Dr. John D. Russ, who raised the infant institution to maturity; and though he long since ceased to superintend it officially, be has not yet ceased to be its efficient friend. The first thought of building up special institutions for the instruction of the blind seems to have occurred to benevolent persons in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania almost simultaneously, but without concert.

In Philadelphia, the benevolent Roberts Vaux had been urging the matter for several years upon his friends in that city before they finally organized the excellent institution which has grown to be among the foremost in the world. The success of these institutions awakened an interest all over the United States. A detachment of pupils from the Perkins institute visited 17 states and were exhibited before the legislatures and people." The course of instruction in all the institutions for the blind in this country embraces nearly the same studies, and is of necessity chiefly oral. The primary instruction for the young is in spelling, reading, moral lessons, and arithmetic; afterward come geography, arithmetic, history, grammar, writing, physiology, algebra, geometry, natural philosophy, mental philosophy, ssience of government, logic, chemistry, and moral philosophy. Conversation, reading, writing, and music are of course continually practised, and many of the pupils become adepts in the last named art, as they do in all parts of the world. - Printing for the Blind. Attempts were made in the 10th century to print for the blind in intaglio, and afterward experiments were made with raised letters made to slide in grooves.

In 1040 Pierre Mo-reau, a Paris notary, undertook to cast movable leaden letters, but the plan was not successful. In 1780 Weissenburg, a blind man of Mannheim, made geographical maps in relief; and several blind Germans adopted the device of forming letters with pins in cushions. It is said that when Theresa von Paradis of Vienna returned to Paris from England in 1784, she represented musical notes with pins upon a cushion, and that from this her friend Hatiy conceived the idea of embossing letters on stiff p:tper. As Mlle, von Paradis also possessed the contrivances of Weissenburg and of Von Kem-peien, it is probable that Hatiy derived quite as many suggestions from them. It is generally stated that the first book in relief printing was Hauy's Essai sur l'education des aveugles (Paris, 1780), which was translated into English by Dr. Thomas Blacklock, the blind poet. It appears, however, from the "Annual Register" for 1702, that Mlle. Salignac, a blind lady, received communications from her friends written by pricking the letters in paper with a pin, and Diderot says that Priault printed some books for her.

Printing for the blind had been introduced in France for 43 years, and in Prussia 23 years, before it was used in England, although the mechanical arts were taught to the blind in Liverpool only seven years after the practice was commenced at Paris. James Gall of Edinburgh printed in 1827 the first book in English in relief for the blind. Mr.

Gall visited London in 1829, and introduced his printing in that city. About 1832 he completed at Edinburgh the Gospel of St. John, which is probably the first book of the Scriptures ever printed for the use of the blind. His alphabet is the common English lower case, or small letter, reduced to angles and straight lines, as follows:

In 1832 the society of arts in Scotland offered a gold medal, of the value of 20 sovereigns, for the best alphabet and method of printing for the blind. Twenty-one alphabets were submitted to the committee, 14 of which were for competition. Of these only four have survived. The one which obtained the medal was that of Dr. Fry, which, with slight modifications made by Mr. Alston, the treasurer of the asylum for the blind in Glasgow, are simply the Roman capitals very slightly altered, and nearly the same as those which have been until recently used at Philadelphia. One of the alphabets submitted to the committee was composed of stenographic characters, invented by Mr. T. M. Lucas of Bristol, as follows:

This alphabet is principally used only in three of the schools in England, and partially in three others. It is said to be difficult. A few years later a phonetic alphabet was introduced by Mr. Frere, which is now taught only at Norwich. Mr. Levy remarks that "it is useful in enabling persons entirely uneducated to learn to read in a short space of time, but that it tends very much to vitiate pronunciation." Mr. Moon, who had been engaged in teaching Frere's system at Brighton, printed in 1847 a book in the following characters, which are exclusively used in one school in London, one in Brighton, one in Edinburgh, one in Aberdeen,, one in Dublin, and one in Cork:

The following is the alphabet in the system of tangible point printing which was introduced about the year 1839 at the imperial institution for the blind in Paris by the late M. Braille:

This system is used in the schools in France, at Lausanne in Switzerland, at some of the schools in Belgium and Holland, and at Rio Janeiro. The modification of this alphabet by the abbe Carton consists principally in changing the points so as to make the characters have some resemblance to the Roman letter, but it has never been adopted except at the school in Bruges, where it was introduced by its author. Printing in relief for the blind in the United States was begun at Boston by Dr. Howe in 1834, and at Philadelphia by Mr. Friedlander in 1835. Dr. Howe's alphabet consists of the following alteration of the lower case Roman type:

The Acts of the Apostles was printed in this type in 1834, and in 1836 the New Testament was printed in four volumes and sold for one dollar a volume. This was the first New Testament printed for the blind in any language. The Old Testament was completed in 1842. In all, there have been about 50 different works printed in this type at the Perkins institute, among which are Lardner's "Universal History,v Howe's "Geography," Howe's "Atlas of the Islands," Peii'ce's "Geometry" with diagrams, "Astronomical Dictionary," Guyot's "Geography," "Pilgrim's Progress," "Milton's Poetical Works," "The Old Curiosity Shop," etc. The alphabet introduced into the Pennsylvania institution by Mr. Friedlander is similar to those of Fry and Alston, and to the Roman used in many of the schools on the continent of Europe, nearly like the black type called Gothic - A, b, c, d 1, 2,3, 4, etc. In this type the Pennsylvania institution has published portions of the Bible; "Dictionary of the English Language," 3 vols.; "Select Library," 5 vols.; "Student's Magazine," 4 vols.; "Church Music, with Hymns," the musical characters in relief;:* vols.; Die Osterier (German); and several other books.

It has lately been decided, however, to adopt the type of Dr. Howe, which is the principal reading type now in use in all the institutions in the United States. A system of tangible point writing and printing has lately been devised by Mr. William B. Wait, the superintendent of the New York institution for the blind, in which the letters that occur oftenest are represented by the fewest points. The following is the alphabet:

An alphabet of capital letters is formed from these, but it is not proposed to use it much, except in cases where it would be obviously preferable. There are signs for words and combinations which occur often, as the, and, of, etc. An instrument called a guide, similar to the one used by M. Braille, but differing in some important respects, is used in the formation of the letters, which are made by pressing the point of a blunt style upon paper which is held upon a frame between the two parts of the guide. The upper part of the guide is represented in the subjoined cut, in which the word

"justice" is spelled, as will be observed, from right to left, in which manner all relief printing must be done. "When the paper is turned over and the ends reversed, the raised points which are made by the style will appear as follows:

The lower part of the guide, which is placed beneath the paper, has six parallel grooves, two for each row of cells, for the purpose of forming the upper and lower lines of points. The cells and bars in the upper part of the guide are made of such dimensions that when a style of the proper size is used, the points formed in each of the angles of the cells will be equidistant; therefore spaces of any desired length may be left between the letters, any letter being formed entirely in one cell, or partly in one and partly in the next; the bars not being intended for separating the letters, but for locating the points. In regard to the respective merits of the systems of printing for the blind, there has been considerable controversy. Mr. Levy, the blind author, says: "In considering the best means for enabling the blind to read, it is necessary to fully comprehend the powders of touch as enjoyed by the person for whom the means of reading are especially intended___The great error that has prevailed ever since the invention of raised letters is the supposition that the sense of touch exists with equal intensity in all blind persons, and that to render this apparent the due cultivation of the sense of feeling is all that is required.

Touch differs from sight in many respects, but chiefly in this, that while sight can take in at one glance many objects included within a vast area, touch can only convey to the brain by one act of contact the impression of the first small point that arrests its progress. Let a small horizontal line be made on a piece of paper, the person who wishes to feel it proceeds from the left side of the paper quite unconscious of what may meet his finger; he presently comes in contact with a point, which fact with more than lightning speed is conveyed to the brain. Now it is obvious that if it were possible to convey to the brain a distinct idea of one special letter or word every time the finger comes in contact with a point, ' tangible' reading would reach perfection. The first thing is to select the most tangible characters, viz., those whose properties can be perceived immediately that the finger comes in contact with them." On the other hand, the Rev. Mr. Johns, chaplain to the asylum for the blind, St. George's Fields, London, says: "Sooner or later some one system of embossed printing will be generally adopted, and it must embrace the fol-lowing features: It must resemble as nearly as possible the type in use among seeing men; that the blind scholar' in learning to read may have every possible help from his remembrance of letters he may once have seen, but which now his fingers must feel for him, or from any one who can read an ordinary book; or, if need be, that a friend may read to him." Systems of notation in raised characters have been invented by Rousseau, Braille, Guadet, and Mahoney, and possess merit, inasmuch as they permit the pupil to record any piece of music for future reference; but the principal method of cultivating music by the blind must always be by the ear, and in this they excel. - As to the extent of the misfortune of loss of sight as compared to that of loss of hearing and speech, Mr. Johns substantially says: "At first one would be naturally led to suppose that the condition of the blind man is by far the most deplorable; that his isolation is mure complete.

But no one who has ever really known an educated blind man in society will again incline to such an opinion. It is true that the deaf mute can see all that is going on around him, but he can mostly only take an imperfect part in it. From the world of sweet Hound he is utterly barred out, while the divine gift of speech is entirely denied him; but the blind man enters into the society of his fellow men as lively as if gifted with the keenest vision. The whole world of sound is open to him with all its special speaking, joy, and. beauty; the silver paradise of music opens to him her fairy gates, a new guide takes him by the hand, and under her glowing, joyous sway he travels swiftly to the land where faith is even greater than sight." In the cases of such men as Saun-dorson, Huber, Zisca, Dr. Blacklock, and others, it may be believed that scarcely any calamity not involving the loss of mental health would have hindered the development of their innate greatness. That a blind boy should ever come to occupy the chair in a university once held by Newton, that a blind youth should successfully prosecute investigations in afield of natural history which required the most careful observation, or that it should be said of a man, as it was of Zisca. that "he was more dreaded by the enemies of his country after he became blind than before," must ever be matter of wonder and admiration.

A list of the most famous blind persons mentioned in history and others of eminence will be found in the preceding table. Of the living blind men in the United States - who have become distinguished as authors and teachers may be mentioned the Rev. William II. Milburn, a pulpit orator of much power, and author of a book called "Rifle, Axe, and Saddlebags," and several other popular works; William H. Churchman, the present able superintendent of the institution for the blind at Indianapolis; J. M. Sturtevant, superintendent of the institution for the blind at Nashville; Otis Patten, superintendent of the institution for the blind at Little Rock; the Rev. Patrick Kane, superintendent of the institution for the blind at Baton Rouge; and the Rev. Adam McClellan of Brooklyn.