Spain (anc. Iberia; Lat. Hispania; Span. Espana), a kingdom of S. W. Europe, forming with Portugal the Pyrenean or Iberian peninsula. The name Hispania came into use among the Romans after the destruction of the Carthaginian power in the peninsula. It lies between lat. 36° and 43° 48' N., and lon. 3° 20'E. and 9° 21' W. Its greatest extent N. and S., from Cape Penas in Asturias to Tarifa point and the strait of Gibraltar, is about 540 m.; E. and W., from Cape Creas in Catalonia to near Cape Finisterre in Galicia, about 630 m. It is bounded N. E. by France, with which it is connected by an isthmus about 240 m. wide, and W. partly by Portugal; on all other sides it is surrounded by water, viz.: E., S. E., and S. by the Mediterranean and the strait of Gibraltar, which separates it from Africa, S. W. and W. by the Atlantic ocean, and N. by the bay of Biscay. In extent it holds the sixth rank among European states, being surpassed by Russia, Sweden and Norway, Austria, Germany, and France. - The coast line of Spain, which forms nearly two thirds of its perimeter, is about 1,370 m. in length, of which about 600 m. belongs to the bay of Biscay and the Atlantic, and 770 m. to the Mediterranean. In the north, from the French frontier to Cape Or-tegal and thence to the mouth of the Minho, the coast is rocky, the height ranging from 40 to 300 ft.

In the southwest, from the mouth of the Guadiana to that of the Guadalquivir, the shore is mostly low, sandy, and swampy; then it rises gradually, and in the bay of Alge-siras presents suddenly, the magnificent rock" of Gibraltar. From Gibraltar to Cape Palos at the southeast it is mostly rocky, but of little elevation. The E. coast, from Cape Palos to the French frontier, is alternately high and low; a part of it is lined with lagoons, along which numerous salt works are established. The indentations of the Spanish coast are not considerable; the greatest are the bay of Rosas and the gulf of Ampolla in the east, and the gulf of Almeria, the strait and bay of Gibraltar, and the bay of Cadiz in the south. Among the most important capes are Creus, St. Sebastian, St. Martin, and Palos in the east, Gata and Trafalgar in the south, Finisterre in the west, and Ortegal, Penas, and Machichaco in the north. There are few islands near the Spanish coast; the most important are the Balearic, a group consisting of two larger (Majorca and Minorca) and a number of smaller islands, and Iviza and Formentera (the Pity-usae of the ancients). Other small islands are the Isla de Leon, on which Cadiz stands, and the Columbretes, off the coast of Valencia. Excellent harbors are found in the northwest and west, of which those of Ferrol and Vigo are conspicuous; the southwest has the almost unassailable harbor of Cadiz, and the northeast the harbors of Barcelona and Rosas. - Spain has 230 rivers, of which only a few are navigable.

From the general direction of the mountain ranges, the main streams flow generally either E. or W. The principal rivers which water the basins inclining toward the Mediterranean are the Ebro, Guadalaviar, Jucar, and Segura, each of which receives several affluents. Five large rivers run into the Atlantic, the Minho (Sp. Mino), Douro (Duero), Tagus (Tajo), Guadiana, and Guadalquivir. Two of these rivers, the Douro and the Tagus, have their mouths in the territory of Portugal, and two others, the Minho and Guadiana, on the confines of the two countries. The most important of them in point of navigation is the Guadalquivir, the others being encumbered with rocks, shallows, and falls. The lakes are not important; the most remarkable is that of Albufera, S. of Valencia. - Spain is eminently a region of mountain ridges and broad elevated plateaus. From near the Mediterranean to the Atlantic the whole peninsula is traversed by successive mountain belts, including between them high lands watered by numerous small streams.

As many as five distinct belts are traced across the peninsula, the most prominent of which, ranging along the northern border, has been described under the heads Cantabrian Mountains and Pyrenees. Each belt is marked by bold precipitous fronts facing the south and gentler slopes toward the north. The second belt, the Sierra de Guadarrama (with its continuations the Sierras de Gredos and de Gata), divides Leon and Old Castile from Estremadura and New Castile, and the waters of the Douro from those of the Tagus. Some of its peaks, as the Puerto del Pico in the province of Avila, and Penalara on the border of Segovia and Madrid, rise to a height of about 8,000 ft. Toward the east, on the borders of Aragon, this belt is broken up into various irregular ranges which, under the name of the Iberian chain, including in this designation the spur from the Cantabrians before referred to, extend in a S. E. direction and spread over the E. coast. The third range, called the mountains of Toledo, separate the waters of the Tagus from those of the Guadiana. This range is less marked than the others.

The next is the Sierra Morena, along the southern slopes of which flow the branches of the Guadalquivir. Under various names this important belt is traced from the province of La Mancha on the east to the S. W. extremity of Portugal at Cape St. Vincent. The name Morena, brown or dark-colored, is said to be given to the mountains from the dingy color of the forests of kermes oak along the southern edge. The southern coast range, of which the Sierra Nevada forms a part, and which is spoken of collectively by that name, runs close to the Mediterranean, through southern Murcia and Andalusia, from Cape Palos to Cadiz by one branch, and to the rock of Gibraltar by another. It contains the Cerro de Mulhacen, the highest point of the peninsula, and of Europe except in the Alps and the Caucasus, being 11,654 ft. high, and the peak of Veleta, 11,375 ft. Besides these there are numerous minor ranges, which may be regarded as offshoots or continuations of the principal chains. - The geological formations of Spain range with the mountains E. and W. across the peninsula, and consist in the mountains themselves of metamorphic granites and crystalline schists, and on their flanks are represented the Silurian, Devonian, and sometimes the carboniferous formations.

In Asturias the last named are met with in highly tilted strata. The older palaeozoic rocks are frequently covered by groups of the tertiary, some of the most recent of which, as along the southern slopes of the Guadarrama, lie inclined from the uplifting of the mountains, and in Leon along the Canta-brian range they even stand in a vertical position; but back from the mountains over the great plains of Castile the same strata lie horizontally. The uplifting of the Sierra Morena appears to have been previous to the deposition of the miocene, calcareous beds of which, filled with fresh-water shells, are seen on both sides of the mountains lying horizontally upon highly inclined Silurian slates. The Iberian chain is in great part made up of the newer secondary formations. Moncayo on the western borders of Aragon, the highest mountain of this group, is referred to the Jura, and many other mountains in the eastern provinces more than 5,000 ft. high are composed of Jurassic or cretaceous rocks. These formations extend around on the S. coast, and the rock of Gibraltar is Jurassic limestone.

The trias also is traced from the Pyrenees to Andalusia, near the Mediterranean, in beds of conglomerates, sandstones, limestones, clays, marl, gypsum, and salt. - The mineral productions of Spain are various and rich, and its mines of lead, mercury, tin, iron, silver, copper, salt, etc, have been worked from the remotest times. Iron ores are very generally diffused, but the production of iron is comparatively small. Linares, in the province of Jaen, and the Sierra de Gador, a spur of the Nevada, possess rich mines of lead. The little copper produced in Spain is chiefly from the mines of Linares and that of Bio Tinto N. W. of Seville, all in Andalusia. Tin ores are found only in Galicia, and are worked to a very moderate extent. Lead and copper are also found here, and in ancient times silver and gold were produced in Galicia. Antimo-ny was formerly extracted from the mines of La Mancha. Near Cardona in Catalonia are famous mines of rock salt associated with beds of gypsum in the trias formation. Silver is now obtained only from the mines of Guadalcanal, in the province of Seville. The quicksilver mines of Almaden, in Ciudad Peal, are the richest in Europe. Asturias and Aragon have important coal mines. - The climate of Spain is divided into three greatly differing zones.

The northern zone, which extends to the Ebro and the Minho, comprises Galicia, Asturias, the Basque provinces, Navarre, Catalonia and the northern part of Old Castile, and Aragon. The mountains which cover this zone, the almost perpetual snows of the Pyrenees, together with the N. and N. E. winds, lower the temperature, increase the number and supply of the waters, and promote vegetation. Agriculture is therefore the principal occupation, especially of the Basques and Cata-lonians. The winters in this zone are generally cold, and the springs moist; but the climate is on the whole temperate. The middle zone, which embraces northern Valencia, New Castile, southern Old Castile, southern Aragon, Leon, and Estremadura, is composed of vast and elevated plateaus, the uniform and monotonous surface of which is swept by the winds and burned by the sun. Although high mountain ridges line and traverse this region, it has few rivers, not sufficient to fertilize it. The temperature is subject to extremes; the winters are cold and the summers burning, but the spring and autumn are pleasant.

The southern zone, which comprises Andalusia, Murcia, and southern Valencia, is exposed to the influence of the burning winds from Africa, and to the reflection of the rays of the sun from the naked and rocky mountain walls. The valleys in this zone are deeper and the plateaus less extended and better supplied with water than in the middle zone; the soil is more diversified and better adapted for agriculture. The temperature, delicious in autumn and in spring, is tropical in summer, and more rainy than cold in winter. Two kinds of winds are very troublesome. The gallego, a N. and N. W. wind, blowing from Galicia, is cold and piercing, and causes painful affections of the eye. The southern provinces are visited by the solano, the sirocco of Italy. - Spain is one of the most fruitful countries of Europe. Wheat, maize, barley, hemp, and flax are extensively cultivated, especially in the eastern and northern provinces. Saffron and other dye plants are chiefly found in the interior. Mulberry trees are largely cultivated for rearing silkworms in Valencia, Murcia, and Granada. In the south there is a great variety of the finer fruits, including the almond, date, fig, orange, citron, pomegranate, pineapple, and banana.

Large forests, especially of evergreen oaks, including the cork tree, are still found in Asturias, the Pyrenees, the Sierra Morena, and the Sierra Nevada; but on the whole Spain has less timber than any other of the large countries of Europe, owing to the want of cultivation. The culture of the vine is general; but only the coast districts of Jerez, Rota, and Malaga, in Andalusia, and of Benicarlo and Alicante in Valencia, furnish considerable quantities for exportation. The quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and insects are mostly of the same kinds as those of S. France. Wolves, lynxes, foxes, and wild boars are still to be found on the high mountains; but the bear, which two centuries ago was common, is only to be met with in the Pyrenees. The Barbary ape, the only monkey naturalized in Europe, inhabits the rock of Gibraltar. Descended from breeds which the Moors introduced, the Spanish horse has preserved the fire, docility, grace, and vigor of the Arabian. Those of Seville, Granada, and Estremadura are most valued. The asses and mules are superior; the former rival those of Egypt, but mules are preferred for transportation. The bulls used for bull fights are found wild in the Sierra Morena. Sheep are everywhere extensively raised, a considerable proportion belonging to the merino breed.

Hogs are bred in large numbers; those of Estremadura, Galicia, and Asturias are celebrated for the delicacy of their flesh. There are important fisheries on the coasts; the fish of the Atlantic are preferred to those of the Mediterranean. - The kingdom, inclusive of the less remote islands, is divided into 49 provinces, named after their respective capitals except the last six in the table, viz.: Navarre, capital Pamplona; Biscay, Bilbao; Guipuzcoa, St. Sebastian; Alava, Vitoria; Balearic Islands, Palma; Canary Islands, Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The area and population of the provinces and of the ancient divisions, according to official estimates in 1870, are given in the Almanack de Gotha for 1875 as follows :

The area and population of the foreign colonies of Spain according to the latest data are as follows:

The Canary islands, which geographically belong to Africa, are included by the Spaniards in their European possessions. Besides them, the town of Ceuta, on the coast of Morocco, is included in the European province of Cadiz, and the Presidios, likewise on the 1ST. coast of Africa, are included in the European province of Granada. In population Spain ranks seventh among the powers of Europe, being surpassed by Russia, Germany, France, Austria, Great Britain, and Italy. The increase since 1700 is shown in the following table:

The increase since 1834 has been about equally divided; only one province, Ciudad Real, shows a small decrease, from 277,788 to 264,-649. The largest ratio of increase is in the eastern provinces, where Lerida has advanced from 151,322 to 330,348, Valencia from 388,-759 to 665,141, and Barcelona from 442,273 to 762,555. The thinnest population is found in the interior provinces of Leon, the two Cas-tiles, and Estremadura; and the densest in the north, Galicia, Asturias, the Basque provinces, Navarre, Aragon, and Catalonia. The entire population is distributed among 169 ciudades (cities), 4,707 villas (towns), 30,386 lugares (villages), and 10,788 aldeas (hamlets). The principal cities are Madrid, the capital, Barcelona, Malaga, Valencia,, Seville, Granada, Cadiz, and Saragossa. Spain is believed to have been in former times much more densely inhabited than during the last two centuries. Under the dominion of the Romans, the population, according to some calculations, was upward of 30,000,000; and in the 14th century it is believed to have amounted to 24,000,000. Most of the inhabitants belong to the Spanish race, a mixture of the descendants of the old Iberians and Celts with the Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Suevi, Goths, and Moors, with a general predominance of the Roman element, although the several provinces show in some respects marked differences in the national character.

National amusements are music, singing, and dancing, the last named often assuming, especially in the favorite fan-dango and bolero, a passionate and sensuous character. From the Romans the Spaniards have inherited a fondness for bull fights, which are still the greatest popular festivities, and equally delight all classes. The men are generally well built, and have a dark but clear complexion, black hair, eyes full of fire, sharp features, and gestures measured and solemn.. The women are well formed and distinguished for noble carriage. Besides the Spaniards proper, there are three other races, the Basques, the Modejars, and the gypsies. The Basques, probably the descendants of the ancient Iberians, numbering (besides those in France) about 650,000, and forming the majority of the population in the Basque provinces and in Navarre, have retained their ancient language, manners, and customs. (See Basques.) The Modejars, about 60,000 in number, are the descendants of the Moors; they are chiefly found in Granada and Castile, and many of them still preserve the customs of their forefathers. The gypsies or Gitanos, numbering about 50,000, and scattered throughout Spain, speak a peculiar dialect current only among themselves.

Spain has a very numerous nobility; according to some they form the 21st, according to others even the 15th part of the population. The higher nobility (titulados, grandes) own immense possessions, while the lower class (hidalgos) are in many instances poor. - Agriculture, although still very imperfect, has made of late considerable progress. Wheat, which at the beginning of the century was not yet grown in sufficient quantities for home consumption, forms now a considerable article of export. Wine and oil constitute the chief riches of some of the provinces. Agriculture has made especial progress in Biscay, Navarre, and Aragon, and all the arable ground near the roads has been cultivated. But the most careful cultivation is found in the huertas or irrigated lands of Granada, Murcia, and Valencia, which are regarded as the gardens of Spain, and produce all kinds of fruits, vegetables, and plants. The farmers are for the most part wretchedly poor, and are obliged to obtain money at exorbitant prices by mortgaging their crops. Certain privileges, very injurious to the interests of agriculture" are enjoyed by the proprietors (called mestas) of large migratory flocks of sheep, especially merinos.

They are not only allowed to drive their flocks over village pastures and commons, but the proprietors of such cultivated lands as lie in their way are obliged to leave for them a wide path; and no new enclosures can bo made in the lino of their migrations, nor can any land that has once been in pasture be again cultivated till it has been offered to the mesta at a certain rate. Only about 53 per cent, of the soil is under cultivation. - Manufacturing industry in former centuries was very prosperous. In the middle ages, the wool and silk tissues of Seville, Granada, and Baeza, the cloths of Murcia, and the arms of Toledo enjoyed a high reputation. The expulsion of the Moors and Jews, the monopoly given to the royal manufactories, the onerous taxes weighing down private industry and aggravated by the avidity of the fiscal agents, combined to undermine this prosperity. Seville in 1519 counted 10,000 silk workshops, employing 130,000 workmen; in 1673 it had only 405 manufactories. The manufactories of Segovia, in which formerly 25,000 pieces were annually produced, made in 1788 only 400 pieces.

In recent times industry has greatly improved again, especially by the influx of foreign capital, as a considerable portion of the former property of the clergy has passed into the hands of French and English capitalists. The cotton industry, which is concentrated chiefly in Barcelona and other places in Catalonia, employs 1,200,000 spindles, and supports about 100,000 men. Metallurgic industry has been developed in Guipuzcoa, Biscay, Aragon, Catalonia, and Granada; silk goods are manufactured at Barcelona, Man-resa, Tarragona, Toledo, Seville, and Valencia; woollen stuffs at Segovia, Arevalo, Col-menar (on the Manzanares), and Alcoy; linen in Galicia and Catalonia; leather at Barcelona, Cordova, Burgos, Toledo, Granada, and Madrid; and glassware at Barcelona. There are manufactories of firearms in the Basque provinces, Catalonia, and Segovia, and cannon founderies at Seville, Lierganes, Trubia, and Barcelona. The number of stock companies has greatly increased of late years. At the close of 1866 there were 65 credit and other commercial and industrial associations, with a nominal capital of $37,900,000. In 1867 there were 27 railroad and other public works associations, with a nominal capital of $204,480,000. The number of banks was 23, capital $35,600,000. A decree of March 19, 1874, founded a new national bank, with which the old privileged Spanish bank and the provincial banks were to be consolidated. - The first railroad in Spain was opened in 1848, from Barcelona to Mataro, 18½ m.

Notwithstanding the mountainous nature of the country, their extension has been pursued with some vigor; but in consequence of the wretched state of Spanish industry, the want of good inland roads, and frequent political disturbances, the financial condition of the railroads is unsatisfactory, and their progress has been less rapid lately than in any other European country. In 1867 only 26 m. of new railroads were opened; in 1868, 72 m.; in 1869, 6 m.; in 1870, 36 m.; in 1871, 20 m.; in 1872 and 1873, 60 m. Some of the main lines were not yet completed in 1875. The aggregate length of the railroads on Jan. 1, 1874, was 3,364 m. In 1867 the number of passengers carried was 10,357,351. The total length of telegraph lines in 1871 was 7,287 m.; number of stations, 193; number of despatches, 996,912. The number of post offices was 2,347; of letters, 78,174,000. There are several canals, some of them on a magnificent scale, but mostly unfinished and unfit for navigation. The chief of these are the Imperial canal, begun by Charles V., and extending along the right bank of the Ebro, and the canals of Castile, Manzanares, Murcia., Albacete, and Guadarra-ma. The aggregate length of the canals in 1874 was 430 m., of which 131 m. were navigable.

The number of the boats on the latter was 332. - The most important articles of export are wines, specie, metals, especially lead, raisins, olive oil, flour, cork, soap, wool, brandies, and salt; and the imports comprise sugar, cotton and cotton goods, woollen, silk,, and linen goods, iron in bars, codfish, machines, cacao, guano, and coal. In 1849 a protective tariff was adopted in place of the former prohibitive system. A decree of the regency, dated Aug. 1, 1869, introduced a new tariff, which abolished all prohibitions and reduced considerably the duties on most articles. It provided also for a further reduction to take place on July 1, 1875. The imports and exports from 1867 to 1869 inclusive, according to official reports, were as follows:

The trade of Spain is chiefly with France, Great Britain, and Cuba. In 1867 the value of imports from France was $33,648,000, from Great Britain $26,112,000, and from Cuba $7,680,000; of exports to France $15,936,000, to Great Britain $16,224,000, and to Cuba $9,936,000. The merchant navy in 1867 consisted of 4,363 sailing vessels, tonnage 345,186, and 151 steamers, tonnage 45,484; total, 4,514 vessels, of 390,670 aggregate tonnage. In the same year 9,640 vessels, of 1,532,000 aggregate tonnage, entered the ports. - The government of Spain, which has undergone many changes since 1812, is now a constitutional monarchy. The constitution of June 1,1869, vests the legislative power in a cortes, as representative of the sovereign Spanish nation. The king, who is inviolable and not subject to responsibility, sanctions and promulgates the laws, and exercises the executive power through the state ministry. In January, 1875, the ministry was composed of a president and eight ministers, the departments being foreign affairs, finance, interior, justice, commerce and public works, war, marine, and colonies. The cortes is divided into a senate and the congress.

The requirements for a senator are to be a Spaniard, to be 40 years of age, to be possessed of civil rights, and either to have been the occupant of a high political, ecclesiastical, or literary position, or to be one of the large taxpayers. One fourth of the senate is removed each time that general elections for deputies are held. The lower house, the congress, which is wholly renewed every three years, is composed of at least one deputy to each 40,000 of the population. To be eligible as a deputy one must be a Spaniard, of age, and in possession of civil rights. The cortes must meet for at least four months every year. Each house nominates its own officers. The provinces, districts, and communes of Spain are governed by their own special laws, and this principle of provincial and municipal self-government has generally been recognized by all the governments. Every commune of at least 60 members has its own elected ayuntamiento, which is presided over by an alcalde. Each province has its own parliament, the deputacion provincial, the members of which are elected by the ayuntamientos. The courts of justice comprise the supreme tribunal at Madrid, 15 audiencias territoriales (courts of the second resort), and 499 courts of ordinary jurisdiction.

The army of Spain, according to the military law of Feb. 17, 1873, is divided into the active army and the reserve. The former, the numerical strength of which is established annually by a law, is recruited wholly by volunteers from 19 to 40 years of age, who enlist for a term of at least two years, after the expiration of which they may reenlist for at least one year. The reserve is formed of all who have reached their 20th year, excepting those who serve in the active army. The time of service is three years, and no substitutes are accepted. The reserve of a province may be mobilized by a decree of the government, but the mobilization of the entire reserve requires a national law. Whenever the number of volunteers is insufficient to fill the active army, the reserve may be mobilized. In 1875 the Spanish army was in process of reorganization on the basis of these provisions. The military force in Spain was to number about 216,000 men. To this number should be added about 60,000 men in Cuba, 9,400 in Porto Rico, and 9,000 in the Philippines; total, 78,-400, making the whole strength of the Spanish army 294,400. As it has been common with most of the governments which have followed each other in rapid succession to make military appointments for political reasons, the number of officers of the highest military rank is disproportionately large.

There is a school of infantry cadets at Toledo, a school of cavalry cadets (established in 1851) at Al-cala de Henares, a special school of artillerists, an academy of engineers, and a school of the general staff at Madrid, and a general military school at Toledo. Spain has 125 fortified places, among which are 25 of the first order. The navy, which in former times commanded all seas, and afterward greatly declined, has only recently begun to improve again. The fleet in 1874 consisted of 20 vessels of the first class (7 ironclads, 10 screw frigates, and 3 wheel steamers), 21 vessels of the second class (10 wheel steamers, 9 screw steamers, and 2 screw transports), and 161 vessels of the third class (20 screw steamers, 54 gunboats, 10 wheel steamers, 4 screw transports, and 73 brigs); total, 202 vessels with 894 guns. Besides these are the following vessels not classified: 5 steamers with 5 guns, a monitor with 3 guns, 2 despatch boats with 6 guns, 1 floating battery, and 1 sailing transport. The navy was manned in 1874 by 9,700 sailors and 5,000 marines. - The finances of Spain have long been in a wretched condition, and there is no longer any hope among Spanish statesmen for a permanent improvement.

The apparent surplus of receipts which appeared in several of the budgets presented to the cortes was generally found to be fictitious, and since 1867 even the budget estimates have invariably left a large deficit unprovided for. Even the extensive sale of national and church property has failed to restore the equilibrium and to arrest the threatening increase of the national debt. In the budget for 187l-'2 the revenue was estimated at about $113,500,000, and the expenditures at $121,000,000; and the minister of finance declared that the state was on the verge of bankruptcy, which could be averted only "by the most strenuous exertions, devoted both to raise the revenue by the imposition of new taxes and otherwise, and to depress the expenditure to the lowest possible point." A report of the minister of finance in May, 1873, estimated the public debt at $1,511,000,000. The payment of interest on the foreign debt was suspended on July 1, 1873. According to the Madrid " Official Gazette" the total revenue for 1874-'5 was $108,-960,000, and the total expenditure $104,105,-000. The revenue was derived chiefly from direct and indirect taxes, stamps, tobacco and other monopolies, sales of national property, and exemptions from military service.

The receipts from colonies amounted to only $595,-000. The chief items of expenditure were $55,800,000 for war and marine, and $31,-195,000 for the other ministries. This statement shows a slight surplus of revenue, but if the interest on the public debt had been paid there would have been the usual deficit. - Of the coins of Spain, the real is equal in value to about 5 cts., the peseta is equal to four reales, and the escudo to ten reales. The French metric system was introduced Jan. 1, 1859, but the old weights and measures are still much used. - Nearly the whole population of Spain belongs to the Roman Catholic church; and before the establishment of the Spanish republic in 1868 no other religious denomination was recognized by law or enjoyed the right of public worship. To teach or to embrace Protestantism, or to circulate, buy, or sell Protestant books, was also punishable by law. Only a few congregations of foreign Protestants and Jews were allowed to worship according to the rites of their respective religions. A few natives were known to profess Protestant opinions, and they gradually came to be tolerated as long as they did not assemble for public worship.

After the expulsion of Queen Isabella Protestant congregations were formed in all the large and in some of the small towns; they were soon organized into a Spanish evangelical synod, and a consistory was appointed in Madrid for administrative purposes. Besides the congregations connected with this synod, there are a few Baptist, Scotch Presbyterian, and Anglican churches. The whole number of Protestants in 1874 was variously estimated from 30,000 to 120,000. The Roman Catholic church in Spain is divided into 54 dioceses, 9 of which are archbishoprics, viz.: Burgos, Santiago, Granada, Saragossa, Toledo, Tarragona, Seville, Valencia, and Valladolid. In the Spanish possessions out of Europe, there are in America one archbishopric (Santiago de Cuba) and two bishoprics; in Asia, one archbishopric (Manila) and four bishoprics. The archbishop of Toledo is primate of Spain. In 1830 the clergy and religious orders counted 152,305 members, including 30,900 monks and 24,700 nuns in 1,940 convents. In 1835-'6 nearly all the convents were suppressed; but subsequently various female communities, mostly devoted to teaching and to the care of the sick, and a few male orders, were reestablished by permission of the government.

In 1860 there were 32 male convents with 719 monks, and 866 female convents with 12,990 nuns. The number of priests in 1867 was 43,948. In former times the church owned immense possessions, but in 1835 they were declared national property and confiscated, and the clergy indemnified by fixed salaries. Up to 1839 the ecclesiastical property which had been sold amounted to $78,000,000. A concordat, concluded Aug. 25, 1859, and promulgated Jan. 14, 1860, stipulated that the church should remain in the possession of all the property not yet disposed of, and should have in future the right of acquiring property of any kind. - The organization of public instruction dates from 1845. At the head of educational affairs is a royal council subdivided into six sections, viz.: primary instruction, philosophy, ecclesiastical sciences, jurisprudence, medical science, and administration of public instruction. In 1852 there were fewer than 2,000,000 individuals who were able to read, and scarcely 1,200,000 knew how to write. Since then the government has made efforts to improve public instruction, and the higher institutions of learning have been the object of special solicitude. In 1867 there were 26,332 public schools, with 1,425,339 pupils, of whom 850,762 were boys and 574,577 girls.

In 1872 the middle schools consisted of 50 provincial and 13 municipal institutes, be-.sides several private colegios, with an aggregate attendance of about 26,000. Spain has 10 universities, in Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, Oviedo, Salamanca, Seville, Santiago, Valencia, Valladolid, and Saragossa. The total number of students in 1868 was 12,269. Three universities (Madrid, Barcelona, and Granada) have each five faculties (philosophy and literature, exact sciences, pharmacy, medicine, and law), two four faculties, one three faculties, and the others but two. The theological faculties have been abolished in all the universities, and theological instruction is imparted at the seminaries connected with the episcopal sees. Normal schools have been established, in accordance with the law of 1857, in the capitals of the several provinces. Special instruction is provided for by a school of engineering, commercial schools, a college for the deaf and dumb, a school for the blind, and a higher veterinary school at Madrid, with branch establishments at Cordova and Saragossa. Spain has many literary societies, yet none of them can compare with similar societies in most other European countries.

The best known among them are the royal academy at Madrid, founded in 1714; the academy of sciences at Seville; the academy of plastic arts at Madrid; the academics of arts at Seville, Cadiz, Valencia, Saragossa, and Palma; the royal academy of Spanish history at Madrid; and the academy of geography at Valladolid. Of public libraries there are the royal library and six others at Madrid, one in the Escurial, two at Valencia, two at Saragossa, and one at Toledo, besides those belonging to the different universities. In 1808 only four periodicals were published in Spain; in 1868 there were 468. In 1867 there were 335 theatres, with accommodations for 169,376 people. - The Spanish peninsula was early visited by the Phoenicians, who established flourishing colonies on its coasts, such as Tartes-sus (probably the Tarshish of Scripture) and Gades (Cadiz). They were followed by the Greeks, among whose colonies were Emporiae (now Ampurias, on the coast of Catalonia) and Saguntum (Murviedro, in Valencia). Still the interior remained very imperfectly known, and it was not till the second Punic war that the Romans acquired an accurate knowledge of the country.

The Greeks at first applied the name Iberia (corresponding to that of the river Iberus, now Ebro) to the eastern coast, calling the western part of the peninsula Tartessis and the centre Celtica; but later they extended the term Iberia to the whole. The Romans exchanged this name for that of Hispania (whence the modern Spain), supposed by many critics to be derived from the Semitic shaphan, rabbit, an animal which the Phoenicians found in vast numbers in the country, and by others to be from the Basque ezpana, border. From remote antiquity the elevated regions ot* the interior were peopled by the Celtiberians, a race formed from the mixture of Celts and Iberians. (See Celtiberians.) A number of Iberian and Celtic tribes, however, retained their distinct nationality. Among the former were the Astures, Cantabri, and Vaccaei, inhabiting the mountainous districts of the north. The unmixed Celts dwelt chiefly near the Guadi-ana, and in Gallaecia (Galicia). The Turde-tani, who lived in the valley of the Guadalquivir, were accounted the most civilized of the Spanish tribes, and even had a literature of their own. The inhabitants were brave and warlike.

Even in antiquity the sheep of Spain were highly prized, and the country produced corn, oil, and wine; but its principal riches lay in its mines of gold, silver, and other metals. After the first Punic war the Carthaginians began to establish themselves in Spain, and, under the leadership of Hamil-car and Hasdrubal, subdued several tribes on the S. and E. coasts. Among the cities founded by them was New Carthage (now Cartagena), which soon became a celebrated emporium. Pressed by the Carthaginians, the Greek colonies of Saguntum and Emporiae applied for aid to the Romans, who obtained from Carthage an agreement not to extend her dominion beyond the Iberus, and to respect the independence of Saguntum. The siege and destruction of Saguntum by Hannibal in 219 B. C. led to the second Punic war, in the course of which Scipio expelled the Carthaginians from Spain (206). The Romans now undertook the subjugation of the entire peninsula, but did not fully succeed until after a war of about 200 years, in which the exploits of the Lusitanian Viriathus, the heroic resistance and final downfall of Nu-mantia (133), and the temporary independence of a part of the country under the gallant Sertorius (84 to 72) form brilliant episodes.

In 19 B. C. the subjection of all Spain, with the exception of the Basques, was completed.

Augustus divided the peninsula into three provinces: Hispania Tarraconensis, so named from the capital Tarraco (Tarragona), in the north, east, and centre; Hispania Baetica (from the Baetis, now Guadalquivir), in the south, and extending to the Anas (Guadiana), the capital of which was Corduba (Cordova) or Hispalis (Seville); and Lusitania, between Cape St. Vincent and the Durius (Douro), and nearly corresponding to the modern Portugal, the capital of which was Augusta Emerita (Merida). The country became so thoroughly Romanized that it was one of the principal seats of Roman civilization and literature. Christianity was early introduced, and in the time of Constantine the Christianization of the entire country was completed. The decay of the Roman empire called several German tribes to Spain, who encountered but feeble resistance. The Suevi founded an empire in the N. W. part, in the province of Gallaecia; the Alani occupied Lusitania; and the Vandals settled in the southern province of Baetica, which was called after them Vandalusia (now Andalusia). The Romans called to their aid the Visigoths, who had a powerful empire in S. W. France, already extending across the Pyrenees as far as the Ebro. King Wallia of the Visigoths in A. D. 418 destroyed the empire of the Silingi, a tribe of the Vandals, in S. Spain, and so reduced the power of the Alani that they fused with the Vandals, who in their turn in 429 left under Genseric for N. Africa, where they founded a great empire.

The Visigoths soon subdued the whole of Spain with the exception of the northwest, which remained in the possession of the Suevi till 585, when their empire was destroyed by the Visigothic king Leovigild. One of the greatest kings of the Visigoths was Euric, who in 471 put an end to the dominion of the Romans, and gave to Spain the first written laws. Under Reccared I. the Visigoths, who until then had been Arians, adopted the Catholic faith (589), a step which greatly facilitated the thorough coalescence of the Gothic, the Latin, and the native Spanish elements of the population into one Spanish nationality, with a general prevalence of the Latin element. The constitution of the Visigoths was an elective monarchy, which proved to be a prolific source of violence, assassination, and civil war, and finally led to the destruction of their kingdom. The family of Alaric, which had been dissatisfied at a new election, called the Arabs, who had an empire on the N. coast of Africa (in Mauritania, whence they were called Moors), into Spain, and King Roderic fell in the great and protracted battle at Jerez de la Frontera (July, 711). The Arabs, under the leadership of Tarik, Musa, and others, completed within a few years the subjugation of the country, with the exception of the mountainous districts Asturias, Cantabria (E. of the preceding), and Navarre, where a Gothic prince, Pelagius (Spanish, Pelayo), was elected king, and maintained himself successfully against the invasion of the Arabs. The conquered part of Spain became at first a province of the eastern caliphs.

When the Ommiyade line of caliphs was overthrown by the Abbassides, Abderrah-man, who had escaped the massacre of his family, was invited to Spain, and in 756 established an independent Ommiyade dynasty at Cordova, which attained a high degree of prosperity, especially under Abderrahman III. (912-961). Agriculture, commerce, science, and art flourished, and the literary institutions of the Spanish Mohammedans were so celebrated that they were frequented by Christian students from all countries of Europe. The Jews became very prosperous, and it was in Spain that the mediaeval Hebrew literature reached its highest development. The language and customs of the Moors became generally predominant; the Christians were deprived of their political rights, yet retained the free exercise of their religion. Early in the 11th century the caliphate of Cordova became the prey of internal revolutions, and in 1031 it disappeared altogether, numerous kingdoms being founded on its ruins. During the three centuries of its existence the Christian power had been steadily extending in the north of the peninsula.

The little kingdom which maintained itself under Pelayo in the mountainous districts of N. W. Spain was at first limited to the district of Oviedo, and therefore called the kingdom of Oviedo. The second successor of Pelayo, Alfonso I., the Catholic, conquered Galicia, with a part of Leon and Castile, and assumed the title of king of Asturias. The whole of Leon was conquered by Alfonso III., the Great (abdicated 910), whose son Ordono II. transferred his residence to the city of Leon, and called his dominion the kingdom of Leon. N. E. Spain was conquered by Charlemagne, and became known as the Marca Hispanica, but the Frank dominion was of short duration. Navarre appears as an independent state in the 9th century, and gradually rose to be a powerful kingdom. Near the sources of the Ebro and the Pisuerga arose the kingdom of Castile, at first a small republic, consisting of some forts and a few towns. If it was ever fully subdued by the Moors, it threw off their yoke very soon, for as early as 759 there appears a count of Castile. Its territory was soon enlarged, but for some time it was subject to Leon, until in 961, under Fernando Gonzales, it recovered its independence.

Its rulers soon assumed the title of king, and in 1037 Ferdinand I., the Great, united the kingdom of Leon with Castile, which was henceforth the most powerful Spanish state. Catalonia was ruled by counts, the most prominent being those of Barcelona, who early in the 12th century became the sole rulers. Aragon, which had formed a part of Navarre, became an independent kingdom under Ramiro I. in 1035, and in 1137 it was united with Catalonia. Portugal was made a distinct county by Alfonso VI. of Castile about 1095, and in 1139 was erected into a kingdom. The most important of the Moorish states which arose out of the caliphate of Cordova were Toledo, Valencia, Murcia, Saragossa, and Seville. The last became very powerful under the Abadite princes, and comprised Andalusia, Cordova, Al-garve, and other territories. In the latter half of the 11th century the Christians found a brave leader in Alfonso VI. of Castile, whose reign was rendered brilliant by the romantic exploits of the Cid. Alfonso destroyed the kingdom of Toledo (1085), made its capital his residence, and named his conquest New Castile. Toward the close of the 11th century the Moorish sect of the Almoravides, who had established their dynasty in Morocco, invaded Spain, overthrew the kingdom of Seville, and rapidly extended their sway over the other Moorish territories.

But before the middle of the 12th century a new revolution in Africa raised the sect of the Almohades to power, and the Almoravides of Spain succumbed. The Christian princes, who like the Mohammedan rulers had constantly warred against each other, resolved to unite their forces in a common effort, and in 1212 Alfonso IX. of Castile, with the kings of Aragon and Navarre, annihilated the power of the Almohades in the great battle of Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena. Their empire fell to pieces, the new states were successively subdued by the Christians, and before the close of the century Moorish dominion had been restricted to the kingdom of Granada, which paid homage to Castile. Granada continued for two centuries a great and populous state. Weakened by continual wars with Castile and by internal dissensions, it finally, after a desperate conflict, succumbed under the famous Boabdil to Ferdinand and Isabella. Among the Christian states of Spain, Aragon and Castile became the most powerful, and in the course of time absorbed all the others.

Pedro I. of Aragon conquered the principality of Huesca; Alfonso I. (in 1118) Saragossa, which he made his capital; Alfonso II. and Pedro the Catholic likewise enlarged the empire; James (Jaime) I., the Conqueror, wrested from the Moors the Balearic islands and the kingdom of Valencia; Pedro III. occupied Sicily in 1282; and Alfonso V. united Naples with his kingdom. But, while enlarging its territory, Aragon suffered at home almost continually from civil broils and plots, from contests between the grandees and the kings, and from oppression of the people by taxes. It was, however, the first Christian state in which the third estate obtained a legal position. (See Aragon.) When the Catalonian line of princes became • extinct, the cortes of Aragon in 1412 elected Ferdinand, infante of Castile, their king, and his descendants ruled the country until the latter part of the 15th century, when the marriage of Ferdinand V., the Catholic, of Aragon, with Isabella of Castile, consolidated all Christian Spain into one kingdom.

Among the more prominent kings of Castile are Ferdinand III. (1217-52), who by successful wars against the Moors annexed Jaen, Cordova, and Seville to his dominions; his son Alfonso X., the Wise (1252-84), a patron of science and art, and himself a great scholar, but a weak ruler, under whom, while he was striving for the imperial crown of Germany, the Moors made new conquests in the southern part of Spain; Alfonso XI. (1324-'50), who broke the power of the Moors; and his son Pedro the Cruel, who, after a distracted reign, perished in 1369. In Castile the towns possessed fewer rights and attained less prosperity than in Aragon, while the privileges and the power of the clergy and the nobility were more extensive. In the 15th century, during the reign of minor princes, the clergy and nobility usurped so much of the royal prerogatives, that when Isabella (1474-1504) ascended the throne, royalty was almost powerless. Ferdinand the Catholic united the dignity of grand master of the three Castilian orders of knights for ever with the Spanish crown, obtained from the pope the right of nominating all bishops, expelled the Jews from the Spanish soil, and reorganized the inquisition. (See Inquisition.) The subjugation of the kingdom of Granada, the last Moorish possession in Spain (1491-'2), completed the political consolidation of the kingdom; while the conquest of Naples (which had been separated from the crown of Aragon) by Gon-salvo de Cordova, and still more the discovery of America by Columbus, and the subsequent occupation of large portions of North, Central, and South America by Spanish generals, soon raised the new kingdom of Spain to the front rank among the powers of the earth.

But the expeditions to America led to a neglect of the native soil, and the expulsion of the Jews and of the bulk of the Moors proved a fatal blow to the flourishing industry of Spain. Ferdinand, who had survived his son-in-law Philip I. of Castile, was succeeded in 1516 by his grandson Charles L, who permanently united Castile and Aragon, inherited the Netherlands from his paternal grandfather, the German emperor Maximilian of Hapsburg, was elected emperor of Germany (as Charles V.), and conquered Milan. At the beginning of his reign serious insurrections broke out in Valencia and Castile, where the people demanded a more liberal constitution; but they were soon quelled, and resulted in the abolition of the principal rights of the towns, the restriction of the powers of the cortes, and a stronger attachment of the clergy and nobility to the crown. The constitutional privileges or fueros of the Basque provinces were, however, reconfirmed. The conquest of Mexico by Cortes, and of Peru and Chili by Pizarro and Almagro, poured immense riches into the royal treasury; but the wars of Charles against Francis I. of France, against the Protestants of Germany, against the people of Ghent in the Netherlands, against Pope Clement VII. in Italy, and against Tunis and Algiers, exhausted the revenues of the country, burdened the people with enormous taxes, and required the contracting of a heavy debt.

Under the reign of his son Philip II. (1556-'98) the vast monarchy began to decay. Philip, under a claim of succession by inheritance, conquered Portugal, which from 1581 to 1G40 remained united with Spain; but this conquest, together with the war against the revolted Netherlands, a brilliant naval warfare against the Turks, the unfortunate naval struggle with England, in which the "invincible armada" was destroyed and Cadiz captured by the English, and the extravagance displayed in the building of the Escurial, exhausted the strength of the country. The despotic measures adopted by the inquisition for crushing out Protestantism and the remnants of the Moors (Moriscoes), and by the king for destroying still more thoroughly the ancient privileges of the people, had in great part the desired effect, but also completed the ruin of Spanish commerce, agriculture, and industry. Literature and art, however, continued to flourish, and the Spanish language and fashions controlled the courts of Europe. The imbecile and fanatical Philip III. (1598-1621) left the reins of government to his favorite, Count Lerma, who squandered the revenues of the state, and drove the last of the Moriscoes, 600,000 in number, out of Spain. Under Philip IV. (1621-'65) Portugal recovered its independence; Catalonia was devastated for 10 years by a civil war; the Dutch infested the Spanish possessions in America, especially Peru; three fleets were destroyed by gales, diseases, and the enemy; the Protestant Netherlands were abandoned for ever; insurrections broke out in Naples and Sicily; and the enmity between Olivarez, the Spanish minister, and Richelieu, involved Spain in a war with France, by which the former lost Roussillon. Under Charles II. (1665-1700) another disastrous Avar was waged against France, and the population of Spain decreased to 8,000,-000. The death of Charles, with whom the Spanish house of Hapsburg became extinct, occasioned a war for the succession to the Spanish throne, which both the brothers-in-law of Charles, Louis XIV. of France and Leopold I. of Austria, tried to secure for princes of their respective families.

Charles, in a second will, appointed Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., sole heir of all the Spanish monarchy; but Germany, England, and Holland contested the validity of the will, and for 13 years resisted the claim of Philip to the Spanish throne. (For the principal events of the war of Spanish succession in the wider sense, see PHILIP V., Charles VI. of Germany, Louis XIV., Eugene, and Marlborough.) The allies won several signal victories; yet Philip V. finally maintained himself on the throne, although in the peace of Utrecht (1713) he was obliged to cede Naples, the island of Sardinia (a conquest of Aragon), Milan, and the rest of the Netherlands to Austria, Sicily to Savoy, and Gibraltar and Minorca to England. Under his reign Aragon, Valencia, and Catalonia lost the last of their constitutional rights. The great affairs of the state were managed by the queen, Elizabeth Farnese, and her minister, Cardinal Alberoni. In Italy, Naples and Sicily were conquered by the infante Carlos in 1734 - '5, and Parma gained for the infante Philip in 1748. Philip's son Ferdinand VI. (1748-'59) was disabled by melancholy from taking active part in the government.

He was succeeded by his half brother Charles III. (1759-'88), previously king of Naples, with whose reign a better era began to dawn. Having signed the Bourbonie family compact with France in 1761, he was involved in the French-English war, in which, as well as in an expedition against Morocco and Algiers in 1775, and in the expensive siege of Gibraltar during a second war with England, the Spanish arms were not successful; but the internal prosperity of the country was greatly promoted by the wise administration of the king, who was assisted by a number of enlightened statesmen, as Aranda, Campomanes, Olavidez, and Florida Blanca; agriculture, commerce, and trade began to revive; and the population during his reign showed a considerable increase. The power of the inquisition was greatly restricted, the Jesuits were expelled from all the Spanish dominions (1767), and the boundaries of the empire enlarged by the addition of Minorca and Louisiana. He was followed by his son Charles IV. (1788-1808), who at first continued the reformatory policy of his father, but after 1792 gave himself up to the pernicious influence of Manuel Godoy, duke of Alcudia. At first Spain joined the alliance against the French republic, but was soon compelled to conclude the inglorious peace of Basel (1795), by which Santo Domingo was ceded to France. In 1796 Godoy entered with France into the offensive and defensive league of San Hde-fonso, and declared war against England. In 1797 the Spanish fleet was defeated near Cape St. Vincent, Minorca and Trinidad were occupied by the English, and all the ports of Spain blockaded.

Spain suffered so much from this war, and the financial embarrassment of the country became so great, that Godoy resigned his position as prime minister, although he retained in fact a controlling influence in state affairs. In 1800 Spain ceded Louisiana to France, and in 1801 commenced, at the instigation of Bonaparte, a war against Portugal, the ally of England, which was terminated by the peace of Badajoz, and resulted in the cession of Olivenca by Portugal to Spain. By the treaties of Luneville and Amiens, Spain ceded Trinidad to England, Parma was annexed to the Cisalpine republic, and the prince of Parma, a descendant of the royal house of Spain, was made king of Etruria. On the reopening of the war between France and England in 1803, France demanded, in accordance with the league of San Ildefonso, the assistance of Spain, which, desirous of preserving a neutral position, agreed to pay to France a monthly subsidy of 4,000,000 piasters. The capture of several Spanish vessels by the English compelled Spain to declare war against England, Dec. 12, 1804. At Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805, the combined French and Spanish fleets were totally defeated by Nelson, and Spain alone lost 12 ships of the line.

The misery which these unfortunate wars brought upon Spain led to the formation of a powerful opposition to Godoy, who made some feeble and fruitless efforts to extricate his country from the alliance. The success of Napoleon in the war against Prussia thwarted these efforts; he demanded and obtained from Spain two auxiliary armies, one of which, consisting of 16,000 men, was sent to Denmark, the other to Tuscany. Spain had also to submit to the disgraceful treaty of Fontainebleau, in consequence of which French troops were marched into the country. An insurrection compelled Charles IV. to abdicate in favor of the prince of Asturias (March 18, 1808), who ascended the throne as Ferdinand VII. Soon after, however, in a letter to Napoleon, he represented his resignation as compulsory, and revoked it. Both father and son courted the patronage of Napoleon, who, accepting the office of arbiter, invited them to Bayonne, and there extorted from both, as well as from the infantes Don Carlos and Don Antonio, a resignation of their claims to the Spanish throne.

Napoleon then called a junta of 150 Spanish and American delegates for the purpose of forming a new constitution, and on June 6, 1808, declared his brother Joseph king of Spain and the Indies. The new constitution was adopted and sworn to by the king and the delegates, July 6. On July 9 Joseph departed for Spain, where insurrections had already broken out in Navarre, Aragon, Estremadura, Castile, Leon, and Galicia. England, on July 4, made peace with "the Spanish people," recognized Ferdinand VII. as king of Spain, and vigorously supported the insurrection of the Spaniards, which was under the direction of a central junta. The junta, at the head of which was the aged ex-minister Florida Blanca, called into the field half a million of combatants, under Palafox, Castanos, Romana, Ballesteros, and other national leaders, who were supported by English armies under Moore, Baird, Wellington, Beresford, and others. A fierce guerilla warfare was waged throughout the country; Saragossa, Gerona, Cadiz, Tarragona, and Valencia were heroically defended.

Until 1812 the war was carried on with varying success; yet the greater part of Spain fell into the hands of the French, who were commanded by Su-chet, Soult, Massena, Marmont, Nev, Macdon-ald, and other generals, and the Spanish patriots and the English maintained themselves only in the western provinces and in Portugal.

But the failure of Napoleon in Russia was soon followed by a retreat of the French from Spain. Soult with 30,000 French troops was recalled; the brilliant victory of Wellington at Vitoria (June 21, 1813) forced the French army to fall back to the other side of the Pyrenees. Only a few strong places remained in their possession, until the bloody victory of Wellington at Toulouse (April 10, 1814) and the capture of that city successfully terminated the Spanish war of independence. The cortes, which in January, 1810, had fled from Seville to Cadiz, completed a new constitution, March 18, 1812. The regency, which was recognized by England and Russia, at once took the oath to acknowledge it. After the termination of the war, the cortes invited Ferdinand VII., who had been set free by Napoleon, to return to Spain and take an oath to support the constitution. Ferdinand returned, but went to Valencia, and declared the constitution null and void. He announced at the same time his intention, not to restore despotism, but to introduce another constitution on a liberal basis. This promise was not fulfilled; the inquisition was revived, despotism was restored, and most of the reforms introduced under Charles III. were annulled.

Florida was sold for $5,000,000 to the United States, and the attempts to reconquer the revolted colonies in America proved miserable failures. On Jan. 1, 1820, a military insurrection, under Riego, broke out for the purpose of restoring the constitution of 1812. It spread with great rapidity; several generals, as O'Donnell and Freyre, who were sent out for its suppression, joined the insurrectionists; and in March the king was compelled to proclaim the constitution of 1812, and to convoke the cortes. A new ministry was formed, the press declared free, the inquisition abolished, and within a few days the new order of things was acknowledged throughout Spain. The suppression of a part of the convents and other resolutions passed by the cortes, which met in July, provoked the formation of an "apostolical junta," which demanded the restoration of the absolute power of the king, of the convents, and of feudal institutions. Even a regency was appointed by the apostolical party at Seo de Urgel, in Catalonia; but the troops of the government drove the regency into France in November, 1822, and dispersed all the guerilla bands in the northern provinces in February, 1823. In the mean time France, at the congress of Verona (1822), agreed with the courts of eastern Europe upon an armed intervention in Spain. The Spanish government was called upon to restore the royal sovereignty and to change the constitution; and compliance being refused, a French army of 100,000 men, under the duke of Angouleme, marched into Spain in April, 1823. The Spanish government opposed to them four corps under Ballesteros, Mina, O'Donnell, and Morillo, but most of them were soon overpowered and capitulated; Riego, who maintained himself longer than most of the other generals in the field, was made prisoner and hanged.

The king was compelled to follow the cortes to Seville, and from thence to Cadiz; but a new regency at Madrid, in the name of the "imprisoned king," restored political absolutism, together with the convents. When Cadiz was closely invested and bombarded by the French, the cortes restored to the king his absolute power, Sept. 28. Ferdinand VII. at once revoked all the decrees of the constitutional government from March 7, 1820, to Oct, 1, 1823, and confirmed those of the regency. All persons suspected of liberalism were persecuted with great rigor; the municipal rights of the communities were abolished; and a treaty was concluded with France, which provided for a continuance of the French occupation. Still a great part of the absolutist party considered the king as not sufficiently energetic, and formed a coalition for elevating to the throne his brother Don Carlos. Several insurrections broke out in 1825 and 1826, but they were soon quelled. At the same time Spain was compelled to abandon its last position on the mainland of America, Jan. 22, 182G. In 1830 Ferdinand was prevailed upon by his wife, Maria Christina, a Neapolitan princess, to abolish by the pragmatic sanction of March 29 the Salic law of the Bourbon family.

In consequence of this change his daughter, the infanta Isabella (born Oct. 10, 1830), became heir to the throne, in place of his brother Don Carlos. In September, 1832, the apostolic party extorted from the king, who was dangerously ill, a revocation of the pragmatic sanction of 1830; but the intrigue was soon discovered, the influence of the party broken, and Maria Christina appointed regent of Spain for the time of the king's illness (October, 1832). She surrounded herself with a ministry of moderados, and tried to effect a reconciliation with the liberals in order to break the power of the Carlists. Don Carlos himself entered a protest against his exclusion from the throne, which was sustained by the Bourbonic courts of Italy. The death of Ferdinand VII., Sept. 29, 1833, was the signal for a general civil war. Don Carlos was proclaimed in the Basque provinces as Charles V., and was supported by a majority of the clergy and the country people throughout the kingdom; Maria Christina had the joint support of the moderados and the liberals. At first the Carlists, under the command of Zumalacarreguy, were successful, and the government of Christina implored the aid Of England and France, which allowed recruiting within their states for the Spanish army.

Soon afterward an army of 10,000 men was enlisted in England to join the royal troops. The cause of the Carlists began to decline with the unexpected death of Zumalacarreguy, June 25, 1835, and still more when Espartero in 1836 assumed command of the royal army in the northern provinces. The government, in the mean while, was compelled to make new concessions to the radical wing of the progressive party (exaltados), and to adopt in 1837 the so-called modified constitution of 1812. The Car-lists were finally overpowered in 1839, when Don Carlos fled to France. Cabrera maintained himself until July, 1840, when he also fled to France, and the Carlist war was at an end. Yet another revolutionary movement broke out in the same year, when the cortes passed a new ayuntamiento law, which abolished the former municipal rights of the Spanish towns. Maria Christina found it necessary to appoint Espartero, the leader of the movement, prime minister; soon afterward (Oct. 12) she resigned, and, with the chiefs of the moderados, embarked for France. The cortes in 1841 appointed Espartero regent during the minority of the queen, and Arguelles, an old constitutionalist of 1812, her tutor.

The administration of Espartero did more to promote the prosperity of the country than any other before or after him. New roads and canals were constructed, mining was encouraged, and industry and trade were put on a firmer basis; and the functions of public officers were never discharged with greater integrity. But the sale of the ecclesiastical property had provoked the almost unanimous opposition of the Spanish clergy, who, in union with the moderados and the absolutistas, were strong enough to harass Espartero by insurrections during the entire period of his administration. In May, 1843, an open rupture between Espartero and the cortes, although a majority of them were progresistas, was at once followed by a general insurrection throughout Spain, at the head of which were the leading generals of the moderados, as Narvaez and O'Donnell, who had returned from France. Toward the close of July Espartero embarked at Cadiz for England. In October the cortes declared the queen of age, who in the next year formed a ministry of moderados, under the presidency of Narvaez. Christina was recalled from France, her secret marriage with Munoz, formerly one of her body guards, publicly announced, and negotiations commenced with the pope, who had denounced the sale of church property as robbery.

In the cortes which met in October, 1844, the moderados had a majority, and in the constitution which they adopted (the constitution of 1845) the rights of the cortes were limited, and the trial by jury for offences of the press and the national militia were abolished. The subsequent history of Isabella II., who in 184G married her cousin, Don Francisco de Asis, is especially noted for the frequent change of her ministers, mostly brought about by palace intrigues. In 1847 the queen yielded for a time to the counsels of her favorite, Gen. Serrano, and appointed a ministry of progresis-tas, which promulgated a general amnesty and conferred on Espartero, whom they recalled from England, the dignity of a senator. But before the end of the year the moderados regained the control of the state under the energetic leadership of Narvaez, who showed a conciliatory spirit, maintained the amnesty, and made no objection to the return of Espartero. Two illicit expeditions against Cuba, in 1850 and 1851, which were prepared by Cuban refugees in the United States, and met with great encouragement in the southern states of the Union, and subsequently the declarations of the American democratic party in favor of an acquisition of Cuba by the United States, disturbed the relations between the two governments.

The relations with the papal court were settled on a friendly footing by the concordat of 1851. Narvaez resigned in 1851, and till 1854 short-lived and weak ministries succeeded each other, most of which had reactionary tendencies. In 1854 the progress of illiberal legislation, the financial operations of Maria Christina, her husband Munoz, and the banker Salamanca, who had wrongfully obtained the most important railroad concessions, and the imposition upon the country of a compulsory loan of 180,000,000 reals, led to a military insurrection, one of the leaders of which was Gen. O'Donnell, who called on all liberal parties to unite and restore the constitution of 1837. On July 24 the queen saw herself compelled to charge Espartero with the formation of a new government. Constituent cortes were called, in accordance with the law of 1837, which met in a single chamber, and elected Espartero their president, Nov. 28; but two days later he was again appointed prime minister. The cortes restored in the main the liberal constitutions of 1812 and 1837, and declared themselves in favor of religious toleration, and for the sale of the church property. A large minority demanded the one chamber system, and that the decrees of the cortes should not need the sanction of the crown.

The ascendancy of liberalism lasted until July, 1856, when, reactionary influences having again prevailed in the palace, Espartero resigned, and O'Donnell was appointed prime minister. An insurrection in Madrid and the other large cities was suppressed, and the entire kingdom declared in a state of siege. On Aug. 15 the national guard was dissolved, and gradually the illiberal legislation of 1845 restored, especially since Narvaez had become prime minister. The sale of church property was inhibited, and the concordat of 1851 restored. The church property question was finally adjusted by a convention with Rome, on Aug. 25, 1859; and the Spanish government became the strongest supporter of the temporal sovereignty of the pope. In 1858 Spain united with France in sending an expedition against the emperor of Anam, which conquered part of the coast of that country. At the close of 1859 war was declared against Morocco on account of Moorish piracies, and an army under O'Donnell was sent into Afri-ca. After several indecisive conflicts the Moors were defeated, Feb. 4, 18G0, near Tetuan, which was captured, and on April 27 a treaty of peace was signed in which the sultan agreed to pay an indemnity of 400,000,000 reals, and to accord to Spanish trade the same rights as were enjoyed by the most favored nations.

Diplomatic relations with Mexico had been broken off in 1857 on account of outrages on Spanish subjects and the non-payment of Spanish claims. Negotiations with France and England, which complained of similar grievances, led in 1861 to the conclusion of a tripartite treaty, in accordance with which the three governments toward the close of the year sent an expedition against Mexico, to obtain satisfaction. The castle of San Juan de Ulloa and Vera Cruz surrendered to the Spanish squadron under Gen. Gasset without a struggle (Dec. 14-17); but the project of the establishment of an empire under Maximilian being disapproved of, the Spanish forces were withdrawn in May, 1862. In 1860 a Carlist insurrection was incited by Gen. Ortega, governor of the Balearic islands, who proclaimed as king the count de Montemolin, eldest son of Don Carlos. The attempt failed, Ortega was captured and shot, and the count de Montemolin was forced to renounce his claim to the throne; but soon after he repudiated his abdication at Cologne, He died at Trieste on Jan. 13, 1861, when his brother Don Juan asserted his right to the Spanish crown. In the same year Spain resumed her authority over the republic of Santo Domingo on the invitation of President San-tana, who despaired of allaying internal dissensions.

Troops were sent thither, but in 1863 an insurrection broke out, which resulted in the relinquishment of the country by Spain in 1865. In 1864 war was declared against Spain by Peru in consequence of the seizure by the former of the Chincha islands. Chili joined Peru in 1865, and the Avar continued till 1866, when the Spanish forces were withdrawn from the Pacific. (See Chili, and Peru.) The misdeeds of Queen Isabella's administration and her own personal misconduct caused widespread dissatisfaction and led to numerous insurrections in 1865-8, and resulted in the defeat of the royal army at Alcolea, Sept. 28, 1868, and the flight of the queen to France. A provisional government was established, presided over by Generals Serrano and Prim and Senor Olozaga. These events were immediately followed by an insurrection in Cuba. (See Cuba.) During 1869 several republican insurrections against the provisional government were suppressed with much bloodshed, and the cortes voted by a large majority against a republic and for a regency, which was established on June 15, with Serrano at its head. Violent discussions then took place concerning the choice of a king.

After the rejection of the candidacy for the throne by several princes, the provisional government proposed to the cortes in July, 1870, the election of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; but he declined becoming a candidate in consequence of the strong opposition of France, which resulted in the Franco-German war. Meanwhile republican agitation was renewed in the provinces, but on Nov. 16 the cortes elected for king Amadeus, duke of Aosta, the second son of King Victor Emanuel of Italy, who accepted the crown on Dec. 4. On Dec. 28 Marshal Prim was mortally wounded by assassins in his carriage in the streets of Madrid, and two days after Amadeus landed at Cartagena. He endeavored to rule the country as a constitutional monarch; but the dislike of the Spaniards for a foreign prince, and the demoralized condition of all parties, caused his utter failure. After a stormy reign, during which Sagasta, Topete, Serrano, and Zorrilla were the leading statesmen, he abdicated on Feb. 11, 1873, and the cortes established a government under the presidency of Estanislao Figueras. Meanwhile a Carlist insurrection, which had broken out in the north in 1872, began to develop itself.

Don Carlos, son of Don Juan, who had renounced in his favor his hereditary rights in 1868, took command of the insurgents and proclaimed himself king under the title of Charles VII. Among the commanders under him were his brother Don Alfonso, accompanied by his sanguinary wife Dona Blan-ca, the curate Santa Cruz, Dorregaray, Elio, Saballs, Lozano, Tristany, and Lizarraga; but the old Carlist chief Cabrera finally declared for the Madrid government. • The insurrection gradually spread over Navarre, the Basque provinces, Catalonia, Aragon, and even Valencia. On June 8, 1873, the cortes, having previously abolished slavery in Porto Rico, adopted and proclaimed a democratic federal republic by a vote of 210 to 2, and Senor Pi y Margall was chosen president of the executive power. He was succeeded on July 19 by Don Nicolas Salmeron, who was succeeded in turn on Sept. 7 by Don Emilio Castelar. But the republic had scarcely been established when the intransigentes and internationals began a series of revolutionary movements in favor of " cantonal sovereignty," and insurrections broke out in various cities, chiefly of the south and southeast, while the Carlists infested the north.

Alcoy, where frightful atrocities were committed, Malaga, Seville, Cadiz, Granada, Valencia, and Murcia were easily reoccupied by the government troops under Pavia, Campos, and others (July and August); but Cartagena, in which Gen. Contreras led the insurgents, resisted for six months (July, 1873, to January, 1874). Here a portion of the Spanish fleet had fallen into the hands of the insurgents, with which they made piratical excursions against Almeria and other towns of the coast. The blockade was, however, pushed forward with vigor, and a heavy bombardment finally compelled the surrender of the fortress, Contreras and other leaders escaping to the coast of Algeria. Less successful were the government troops under Moriones in the north, who failed to relieve Bilbao. Castelar resigned on Jan. 2, 1874, when his ministry was found to be in the minority. On the following day Gen. Pavia, captain general of Madrid, dissolved the cortes with an armed force, and a new ministry was formed under the presidency of Gen. Serrano. Cartagena having been reduced shortly after his accession to power, Serrano personally took the command against the Carlists, who had taken Portugalete, and after considerable fighting with varying success around Sommorostro (March-May), Portugalete was retaken and Bilbao relieved.

Marshal Concha, however, who succeeded Serrano in command of the army of the north, fell in battle before Estella in June, and in July Don Alfonso advanced with his Carlists as far as Cuenca. Puycerda, which the Carlists besieged, was relieved in August, and Irun in November. Serrano held the executive power until Jan. 9, 1875, when Alfonso, son of Isabella II., who had been proclaimed king by the armies of the centre and north and in Madrid, landed in Spain. The new king took the field against the Carlists in person, but with slight success. Subsequently, however, operations were resumed with greater vigor, and the Carlists were repulsed from St. Sebastian and before Vitoria, and forced back beyond the Ebro, Catalonia was almost entirely freed from them, and the capture of Seo de Urgel with its garrison (October) proved a demoralizing defeat. Many Carlist chiefs submitted, others fled into France, and still others were shot as traitors. At the close of 1875 the Carlist insurrection seemed to be on the point of succumbing to the forces of Alfonso XII.; but an empty treasury, the troubles caused by the intransigentes and by the acrimonious disputes of the different political factions in Madrid, and the still unsuppressed rebellion in Cuba, give little hope of a peaceful reign to the new king. - Among the best histories of Spain are those of Mariana (1601; with continuation by Saban y Blanco, 20 vols., Madrid, 1817-'22), Bossi (8 vols., Milan, 1821), and Lembke and Schafer (in the collection of Heeren and Ukert, 3 vols., 1831-'67). The most valuable illustrations of Spanish history in English are in the works of Prescott, Irving, Ticknor, Watson, Robertson, Coxe, Dunlop, Southey, Stirling, and Ford. Some of the more recent works on Spain are the following: Coello, Resena geografica, geologica y agricola de Espana (Madrid, 1864); F. Garrido, La Espana contemporanea (Barcelona, 1865); H. M. Willkomm, Das pyrenaische Halbinselland (Leipsic, 1866); G. de Lavigne, L'Espagne et le Portugal (Paris, 1867); Ch. de Mazade, Les revolutions de l'Espagne (Paris, 1869); II. Se-goillot, Lettres sur l'Espagne (Paris, 1870); Augustus J. C. Hare, Wanderings in Spain " (London, 1872); Baron Ch. Davillier, L'Es-pagne, illustrated by Dore (4to, Paris, 1873; English translation by J. Thompson, London and New York, 1875-'6); V. Cherbuliez, L'Espagne politique, 1868-1873 (Paris, 1874); L. Thieblin, " Spain and the Spaniards" (London, 1873; Boston, 1875); H. W. Baxley, " Spain : Art Remains and Art Realities; Painters, Priests, and Princes " (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1875); and H. J. Rose, "Untrodden Spain and her Black Country, being Sketches of the Life and Character of the Spaniards of the Interior" (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1875).